
IMPROVED STEAM FINISHING MACHINE FOR WORSTEDS 

Birch Brothers 



Woolen and Worsted 
Finishing 



A Practical Manual of 

INSTRUCTION IN THE METHODS AND MACHINERY USED IN FINISHING 
WOOLEN AND WORSTED GOODS IN GENERAL, AND THE PRO- 
CESSES INVOLVED IN THE SPECIAL TREATMENT OF 
ALL TYPES OF STANDARD FABRICS 



By JOHN F. TIMMERMANN 

Textile Expert 

Formerly with Central Woolen Company 

Stafford Springs, Conn. 



ILLUSTRATED 



CHICAGO 

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE 

1909 



M 



'>> 







h^\ ^^ 



^^ > 



LI3RARY of CONGRESS 
Two CoDies Received 

MAK 22 ia09 

,^ OopyrJKat tntry 

■cuss CC '^C' No, 
COPT 8. 



Copyright 1908 by 
American School of Correspondence 



Entered at Stationers' Hall, London 
All Rights Reserved 



a 



iQll 



Fore^vord 




"^HE Textile Industry has shared to such an extent the 
modern tendency toward specialization, and has been 
marked by the development of such a multiplicity of 
types of machinery and special mechanical and chem- 
ical processes, that the various branches of this great 
industry to-day constitute in reality distinct though closely 
related arts. The present volume is intended to supply a prac- 
tical working guide to all details of the most approved modern 
methods and machinery used in Finishing Woolen and Worsted 
Goods in general, and of the processes involved in the special 
treatment of all types of standard fabrics. 

C Special stress is laid on the practical as distinguished from 
the merely theoretical or descriptive form of treatment of each 
topic, the work being based on a careful study of conditions and 
needs as developed in the best American mills. 

€1. This volume will be found especially adapted for purposes 
of self -instruction and home study, fitted not only to meet the 
requirements of a manual of instruction for the beginner in 
textile art, but also to serve as a reference work replete with 
information and suggestions of the utmost practical value to the 
most advanced and experienced textile worker. 

C The method adopted in the preparation of this volume is 



that which the American School of Correspondence has devel- 
oped and employed so successfully for many years. It is not an 
experiment, but has stood ^ the severest of all tests — that of 
practical use— which has demonstrated it to be the best method 
yet devised for the education of the busy workingman. 

C For purposes of ready reference, and timely information 
when needed, it is believed that this volume will be found to 
meet every requirement. 




Table of Contents 



Wet Finishing Page *11 

Inspection — Burling — Mending — Tacliing — Fulling — Fulling Mill — Crimping 
Bos — Roping — Choking — Seams — Washing — Scouring Liquor — Speck Dye — 
Fuller's Earth — Crocking — Singeing (Gas, Platej — Crabbing — Stretching and 
Rolling — Extracting and Squeezing — Hydro-Extractor — Gigging and Napping 
• — Flats — Teasel Mounting — Up-and-Down and Rotary Gigs — Napping Machine 
— Cropping — Lustering — Steam Finishing — Steam Gig — Carbonization — 
Shrinkage Tables 



Dry Finishing Page 111 

Natural and Artificial Processes — Tcntering — Pneumatic Extractor — Dry-Beat- 
ing — Brushing — She"aring — List-Saving Rest or List Motion — Grinding and 
Fixing — Skipping — Oiling — Brushes — Rubber Rest Shear — Steam Brushing, 
Dewing or Dampening — Dewing Machines — Paper Pressing — Hydraulic and 
Power Presses — Rotary Presses (Old Gessner, Miller, New Century, etc.) — 
Brush Belting — Steaming — Pinal Inspection — Measuring — Rolling — Doubling 
— Wrapping and Packing 

Finishing of Special Fabrics Page 185 

Cassimeres (Saxony Finish) — Cassimeres (Velour Finish) — Union Cassimeres 
— Cheviots — Kerseys — Water Finish on Kerseys — Meltons — Beavers — Chin- 
chillas — Whipping Machine — Chinchilla Machine — Outing Flannels — Fine Doc- 
skins and Face Goods — Double Cloths — Reversibles — Low-Grade Goods — 
Thibets — Satinets — Sanding, Pumicing, or Polishing Machine — Blankets — 
Worsteds — Fancy Worsteds — Serges — Dress Goods (Woolen, Worsted) — Flat 
or Open Washers — Sorting — Padding Machine — Poplins — Worsted Cheviots — 
Bleaching Woolen Goods by Sulphur Process — Helpful Suggestions — Free 
Caustic — Cutting Waste Material into Flocks — Flock Renovator — Finishing 
Covert Cloths — Hand and Machine Sewing — Napping Goods for a Face Finish 
• — Troubles Met in the Finishing Room — Cockles — Mixed Filling — Humidity 
and Its Effects on Yarn 

Index Page 283 



*For page numbers, see foot of pages. 




IMPROVED FULLING MILL FOR WOOLEN GOODS 

James Hunter Machine Co. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED 
FINISHING. 

PART ,1. 
WET FINISHING. 

" Finisliitig " includes all the various processes through which 
goods pass, from the time they leave the loom until they are packed 
in cases and sent to market. 

It is divided into two separate departments, viz. : the " Wet 
Finishing " and the " Dry Finishing," each of which is further 
subdivided into the different processes, forming their respective 
departments. The preparatory process, although performed on 
the goods in the dry state, is not regarded as being part of the 
dry finishing, nor yet as part of the wet finishing, but is usually 
treated as a separate department, although in small mills the 
finisher has charge of this work. 

Inspection, The first process consists of the inspection of 
the goods, after which the number and style are sewn on them. 
The goods are carefully inspected to find all imperfections, no 
matter what the cause may be, and to properly mark them with 
chalk. The goods are generally inspected in the weave room, 
but the examination there is generally superficial, and simply for 
the purpose of seeing that the weaver's work has been done 
properly. But the inspection referred to here must be more 
thorough, as it is for the purpose of finding all the small imper- 
fections — those which are easiest overlooked and which as a rule 
cause the most claims from the buyers. A small " thread out " 
for a quarter of an inch or more, is usually considered such a small 
matter that no notice is taken of it at the wea.ve-room examina- 
tion, but when the goods are taken to the finishing room all these 
little things must be remedied in order to produce a piece of cloth 
as nearly perfect as possible. It is a very hard matter at best to 
produce a piece of cloth which is in every respect perfect, and 
with which some one so disposed could not' find fault, but it 
should be the ambition of the finisher to come as near perfection 
as is compatible with trade conditions. These small imperfec- 
tions can in many instances be finally remedied by an expert 



11 



4 WOOLEN AKD WORSTED FINISHING. 

fine-drawer, but it will take less labor and entail less expense to 
look after these small things from the start. It may be stated 
here that in most small mills this inspection is about all the 
goods receive before the final inspection of the finished fabric; 
but the finer the goods, the more important this labor becomes. 
The first is followed by a second and sometimes by a third 
inspection before the goods are allowed to pass to the wet finish- 
mg department. ' 

After this first step is completed the pieces are marked by 
sewing on the number and style. Sometimes the yards and 
weight from the loom are also sewn on them, although for all 
practical purposes the latter may as well be omitted. The num- 




Burling Table. 

ber is sewn on the back of the goods, on the end to which the 
loom ticket is attached. It is placed on the left side, reading 
from the list inward. Enough room for a good space is allowed, 
and then the style number follows. The goods are then ready 
for the burlers. 

Burling. Here the goods are drawn over a table whose top 
has hinges on the side nearest the operator, so that it may be 
elevated to an angle of 45° by means of a stick put under the 
back. This top must be well joined and smooth, so that the burlers 
may readily feel each knot and bunch in order to remove them. 
The table tops are sometimes covered with zinc, but the constant 



IS 



WOOLEN" AND WORSTED FINISHING. 5 

drawing of the goods over them wears the zinc, until it becomes 
worn through, and being thin is likely to cut the goods. Smooth, 
well-joined boards, shellacked, will be found satisfactory. 

The burlers commence on the back of the goods and remove 
all bunches, knots and loose ends ; in fact, everything which in 
any way interferes with the smoothness of the surface. For this 
work " burling irons " are employed, of which there are several 
styles ; the old-fashioned, pointed irons are still preferred, however, 
to all others. With these and a pair of scissors the work can be 
well clone. The knots should be drawn to the surface carefully, 
and cut off, but not too short. The threads must not be unduly 
tightened when the knots are drawn out, or they will crawl back 
and thus leave an imperfect place. While generally this is not 
of as much importance on the back as it is on the face, still it 
should be insisted on, for it does not take any longer, and prevents 
the operative from getting, into slovenly habits, which are often 
continued when burling the face. As soon as the back has been 
burled in a careful manner, the face is taken and treated in the 
same way. 

Each burler should be provided with a piece of chalk, so that 
■ if an imperfection is seen which has slipped by the inspector, it 
may be marked, thus aiding his labors. The inspector necessarily 
pulls a piece over faster than the burler, and therefore the latter 
is likely to catch everything which slips by, if she is properly 
instructed. Tlie whole work must be done on the face in a very 
careful manner, especially in drawing out bunches. These 
should be drawn out a little at a time, so as not to- injure the 
threads. On close-finished goods the knots are drawn to the sur- 
face and left there for the shears to cut. 

The greatest trouble met with on the face is caused by 
runners. These are made by the drawing in of the filling on the 
sides of the goods all the way from one to five inches, and some- 
times even more. This imperfection is generally due to poor loom 
fixing, and is not allowed to happen in many places. Runners 
must be drawn out carefully, the work being intrusted only to 
experienced hands, else more harm than good will result. If not 
carefully done, the menders must do much additional work. 
When the piece has been carefully treated in the manner described, 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



the burlers enter the number and style, together with the date, 
in a passbook given them for this purpose. This shows the 
amount of work performed, and also helps to locate blame, if any 
complaint arises on account of poor Avork. They then fold up the 
piece neatly and place it on the pile for the next operation, which 
is usually the mending. This folding of the pieces is often over- 
looked for the purpose of saving time, but much to the detriment 




Clotli Eooni Perch. 

of the appearance of the room. Neatness is one of the great helps 
in finishing, and should be practised from start to finish. 

Mending. On the finer grades of goods, such as cassimeres, 
fancy worsteds, etc., there is a second inspection before the 
mending. The goods are pulled over what is termed a " perch," 
which consists of two rolls suspended from the ceiling to within 
7 or 7i feet of the floor. The rolls are about four feet apart, so 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 7 

that the inspector can stand between them, and passing the goods 
over these rolls, pull the cloth down between himself and the light. 
He will thus discover any imperfections which have so far escaped 
notice. The light for this work should be strong, for under the 
most favorable circumstances it is difficult for even a painstaking- 
man to find all the imperfections. It must also be borne in mind 
that the goods will receive as close an examination from the buyer 
as at the mill, and therefore good light should be furnished the 
inspector. A strong north light, with extra large windows, will 
be found excellent, and attention should be paid to this matter at 
this stage. This inspection serves the purpose of examining the 
burler's work, and to mark everything so that the menders may not 
lose time hunting for ".bad places." The inspector should have 
a knowledge of weaving, as this will enable him to know what 
can be properly mended and what cannot. He must have some 
kind of system by which the menders may know of his intentions 
without asking questions. For instance, marks indicate places 
to be mended ; if, however, a bad place appears that cannot be 
properly mended, a cross is made over it, so that the menders will 
not waste time in trying to mend it. The knowledge of weaving or 
of the construction of cloth will enable the inspector to save much 
labor in obliterating a misspick by cutting certain threads, but 
unless one is sure what threads to cut it is better not to attempt it. 

After this inspection, the goods are ready for the menders. 
Usually the pieces are drawn over a perch provided for each 
mender, as it is much better and easier than to pull the pieces 
over a table ; moreover, the operator has a chance to look through 
the goods and see if she is doing the work properly. Menders 
must have good eyes and be able to imitate closely, for upon this 
depends their value. They must be capable of repairing each 
place so that it will be as good as the rest, otherwise the work 
vsdll be of little use. It takes an expert needlewoman, and to 
whom a knowledge of weaving is usually of great assistance. 
The menders work all over the piece, so that when it leaves their 
hands it should be perfect, or very nearly so. They also fold each 
piece neatly and enter it in their book, placing the piece in the 
place designated for the goods that are ready for the next step. 

Tacking. Next in order is the "tacking," which is accom- 



10 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 







16 



WOOLEN AMD WORSTED FINISHING. 9 

plished by doubling the piece face in and sewing the lists together 
every three or four inches. In many mills machines are in use for 
this purpose, but as tacking is not resorted to in all cases, there 
are probably as many more places where this work is done by 
liand. Fig. 1 illustrates a machine of this kind. As will be seen, 
the goods pass over a roll to which friction may be applied, are 
then doubled, and tlu;s pass to the sewing-machine, where the lists 
are stitched together with large stitches from 1 to 1^ inches in 
length. ■ The piece then passes through two rolls, which draw it 
along, taking the place of the feeder, as found on all sewing- 
machine's. It is then passed over a top roll to a folder, which 
folds it off neatly back of the machine. Tacking is employed on 
goods where the lists are faultily constructed, causing them to 
roll up in the fulling; also to protect the face of fine goods from 
chafing, and lastly Avherever flocks are used in the fulling process. 

FULLING. 

Theory. The next step in the process is the "fulling," and 
with this the wet finishing department is entered. " Fulling " 
consists of the felting together of the various fibers of which 
the fabric is composed, not only to give the fabric added strength, 
but also and chiefly to lay the proper foundation for the finish 
which the goods are to receive. This department should be well 
understood, as it is of the utmost importance to the entire finish- 
ing process. In many cases the fulling does not seem to amount 
to more than getting the goods to the correct width and length, 
thus insuring the right weight, but there is considerably more to 
it. The whole process rests upon the. peculiar property of the 
wool fiber ; something which cannot be found in any other fiber 
that is capable of being spun into a thread. This is the felting 
capacity. Under the microscope the wool fiber reveals itself as 
covered with a sort of minute scale. In the process of fulling 
these seem to contract, and hold other fibers which in the process 
are pressed upon them. In order to bring about this "felting 
together" of the fibers three agencies are required: "pressure," 
"moisture" and "heat." By far the most important of these 
agencies is moisture, and therefore this will be considered first. 
Simple moisture, as supplied by water, will no doubt, com- 



17 



10 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



bined with other agencies, call into action the felting capacity of 
the fibers, but it has been found that if nothing else is used, the 
process will be extended not only beyond the limit where it is 
profitable, but in many instances where it is safe to go. It is cus- 
tomary to use soap as the moistening agency. The clean wool 
fiber will felt in hot water to which a quantity of sulphuric acid 
has been added, provided pressure is employed, but the great 
drawback to this is that it leaves the fiber in a harsh and brittle 
condition, which is not desirable to have in woolen goods. Soap, 
however, has a tendency to soften the wool fiber, and as it contains 
alkali, which is also an aid to felting, it is by all means the best 
material to supply the moisture needed for the purpose. That 
alkali aids the fulling in a marked degree may be seen by the fact 
that a clean piece of cloth fulled with a neutral soap will take an 
extraordinary length of time to be brought to width and length. 
In point of felting, however, it will be found that the neutral soap 
will give superior results ; and this shows conclusively that while 
alkali aids the fulling in point of time, it does not give as good 
results as a neutral soap. ' 

Construction of Mill. The next agency employed in fulling 
is pressure; this is supplied by what is termed the mill, one form 
of which is shown in Fig. 2. The fulling mill is cotaposed chiefly 
of sets of rolls, one on top of the other, the lower one usually 
having flanges. Two of tlie flange rolls are mounted firmly on a 
shaft and set into a framework, the power being applied at one 
end of the shaft, just outside of the framework. Two rolls without 
flanges, also mounted firmly on a shaft, are placed on top of the 
first two in such a manner that the top rolls will run inside the 
flanges of the lower ones. On the opposite side from where the 
power is applied, these two sets of rolls are united by two long- 
toothed gears, which insure the top roll turning the same as the 
bottom, thus preventing unnecessary friction. The journals of 
the top roll are movable, and slide up or down in a slot in the 
frame. 

In order to obtain the required pressure, the top rolls have a 
set of elliptical springs on the journal box, which may be drawn 
down to any desired pressure by means of rods threaded on one 
end and passing through a hole in the frame. The whole is 



18 



WOOLEN^ AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



11 



boxed in with good, smooth, hard-pine planking, the top being in 
sections and on hinges, so that it can be easily removed, if neces- 
sary. Between the two sets of rolls a partition is placed so that 
one machine consists practically of two fulling mills. In the front 
part of the machine throat plates airtl guide rolls are fixed, through 
and over which the goods pass when the machine is set in motion. 
The ends of the goods are sewn together, and an endless string is 
thus made, which is continually moving. 





Fig. 2. Fulling Mill. 

As this apparatus exerts pressure on the goods only sideways, 
it would be found that they would come out of the mill longer 
than when they were put in. This is due to the fact that the 
weight of the goods has a tendency to stretch them as they are 
pulled rapidly through the throat plates and slide along the 
bottom of the mill. 

Regulation of Traps. In order to shrink the goods in length 



19 



12 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



as well as in width, a box is attached back of the rolls, through 
which the cloth slides as it leaves the rolls. This box has a cover 
which may be let down on the goods, and in this way hinder their 
free passage. A new supply coming constantly into the box from 
the two rolls will crowd and press, the goods together until the cover 
is lifted enough to allow, a portion of the piece to fall to the bottom 
of the mill. This cover is securely fastened to a rod, which extends 
to the outside of the frame, and which has here an arm attached 
in the same position as the cover. To this arm a rod is fixed, on 
which weights may be placed, thus giving additional pressure to 
PRESSURE 

PRESSURE- 







CLOTH 



CLOTH 



Fia:. 3. Cross-section of Fullinff Mill. 



the cover, and in turn requiring more pressure from the cloth, to 
lift it. In this way the pressure is applied lengthways. This is 
called the crimping-hox, or trap. Fig. 3 shows the running of the 
cloth through the rolls and trap, the bottom of the mill being 
omitted. In front of the rolls is a guide A, made of bronze, con- 
sisting of two bronze discs nine inches in diameter, the inside 
edges being rounded. At the two dots between which the cloth 
passes are two bars (bronze) which pass from one disc to the other. 
The discs are mounted on shafts, one end of which projects out- 
side of the mill and may be turned, so as to have the bars hold 
back the cloth, thus causing stretch. It is therefore called the 
stretcher. Many mills are not supplied with this device, for it is 
not a necessity, but very useful at times. From the, stretcher the 
cloth passes to the rolls, the upper of which is lettered B ; in some 



20 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 13 

mills an extra throat plate immediately in front of the rolls is 
placed. The diameter of the fullmg mill rolls varies considerably, , 
but eighteen inches is a fair average. As the cloth passes into 
the box (trap) the cover C bears on it and causes it to accumu- 
late somewhat in the manner indicated. When quite an amount 
has gathered, the pressure of the cloth lifts the cover and allows 
the cloth to drop to the bottom of the mill. The side pieces of 
the trap are made to fit snugly to the rolls. The bottom of the 
box is about five inches lower than the top of the lower rolL On 
the end next to the roll is a shoe of bronze, E, securely fastened 
to the bottom board. Two stout pieces of plank (F F) are placed 
across the mill and support the box. The bottom is fastened to 
them. The box is made of l|-inch plank. ^ The end view of the 
trap is shown on the right of cut. Arrows indicate the direction 
in which the cloth travels. 

In the actual work of running pieces in the mill the following 
will serve as a guide : two pieces are selected as nearly alike as 
possible in point of weight and length. This is done for the pur- 
pose of having both sides come out as nearly alike as possible. If 
one piece should be six or eight yards longer than the o.ther, it 
will take more time to full the longer piece than the shorter, thus 
causing one side of the mill to run empty while the other piece is 
still coming up. Running mills one-sided causes much pounding, 
is harmful to the machinery, and should be avoided whenever 
possible. 

The manner of obtaining the third agency, " heat " is described 
on page 16. 

The fuller takes off the loom ticket and compares the number 
on it with the number sewn on the piece, to see if they corre- 
spond ; this is to prevent mistakes. The ticket is hung on a nail 
or peg on the side of the mill Avhere the piece is to run. He then 
takes the end and brings it over the guide rolls and through the 
throat-plate and pushes it into the bite of the rolls. When this is 
done with both sides, he starts the mill and runs the goods in until 
just before the other end comes around. The end is then taken 
from the bottom of the mill, and the two ends are firmly and neatly 
sewn together. If sewing-machines are employed for this purpose, 
the ends should be placed back to back so as to make the seam on 



21 



14 WOOLEN^ AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

the face; the back is then turned out, and the ends of the seam 
are inside. This will make things run smoother, and will prevent 
the heavy pounding wliich is heard every time it passes through 
the rolls, when the seam is outside. The pieces are rim for a 
minute to see that they go smoothly, and are then soaped. 

Soaping. In soaping the goods considerable care is necessary 
to have the work miiform. Many different ways are adopted to 
attain this result. To pour the soap on in a slow and steady 
stream is perhaps the best. The amount of soap put on the 
goods to properly wet them is of the first importance. Uniform 
results cannot be obtained, no matter in what way the soap is 
applied if the amount is insufficient. On the other hand, if the 
amount of soap which the goods require is given, such a thing as 
uneven soaping cannot take place, no matter how the soap is put 
on, even if it were all dumjDed on the goods in one place and at 
one time. As it is practically impossible to tell just to a nicety 
how much soap is required, it is best to pour steadily and evenly 
all over the pieces, and after running awhile, stop and examine 
them, to see it" they are sufficiently soaped. This is done by twist- 
ing the piece to see how much moisture shows. By wringing an 
end of the cloth tightl}^, moisture should appear in such quantity 
as to run ofP, but it should require a good twisting to show 
this. Also try the goods at different places, and if they show all 
alike and sufficient moisture, start up the machine and let the 
goods run; if not, add a little more soap, as the case seems to re- 
quire. Actual experience is necessary, and no hard and fast rules 
can be laid down. 

When stopping to examine the goods, all the soap which has 
spattered on the wood and other stationary parts should be re- 
moved and put back on the pieces. By doing this the mill is 
always kept in good condition, and will last a good deal longer 
than if this soap were allowed to stay on and harden. The doors 
will shut better, and the hinges will last longer ; in fact, the whole 
machine is better for it. After these little things have been 
attended to and the goods are running in the mill, the fuller will 
have time to attend to other duties; and if more than one mill is 
running, he can give his attention to the rest. Before leaving the 
mill, however, he should mark the time of starting on the back of 



2^ 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 15 

the ticket, so that he can always know how long the goods have 
been running in the mill. When they have run for about ten 
minutes, it is time to put on the trap and commence to crowd 
them lengthways. During the time that everything is in oper- 
ation he should look to the cleanliness around the mills, for it 
should be the aim of the fuller not only to keep the inside of the 
mill in good condition, but to have the room tidy also. It may be 
stated as a fact, that a man who neglects to keep the floor around 
the mill clean, will neglect other and perhaps more important 
matters also, and therefore will bear close watching. However 
good a man may be, it can hardly be said that the man who needs 
watching is just the right kind of a man to have around, but as 
other things often have to be taken into consideration, it may not 
be desirable to part with him. 

Uneven fulling having been shown above as due to insufficient 
soaping, the opposite of this, excessive, or over-soaping, must next 
be considered. If too much soap is used, the goods will consume 
too much time in getting warm, for the soap will make them slide 
along too smoothly. As felting does not take place until they get 
warm, too much soap hinders in this way, if in no other. But 
there are other evils which are the result of too much soap. It 
causes the goods to feel slazy and too soft, and lack entirely the 
s;!ibstantial feeling of a well-finished fabric. Then again, the goods 
cling to the bottom roll, and are often carried around with it, doing 
great damage and causing much labor to get them straightened 
again. As the lower part of the trap is set close to the bottom 
roll, it is provided with a bronze shoe, for wood would wear out 
too fast. Now if the goods cling to the roll until they get to this 
shoe, small, three-cornered holes are often torn in them in taking 
the piece from the roll. These may easily be detected as due to 
too much soap, for they are always of the same nature, and the 
piece will hang to the roll to such an extent that they can hardly 
be mistaken as having been caused elsewhere. When the piece has 
too much soap the trouble can best be remedied by taking a dry 
piece which is ready for the fulling mill, and running it through 
on top of the piece which has too much soap. This will absorb 
enough to leave the goods in the right condition. If it is found 
that once running through does not remedy the matter sufificiently. 



23 



16 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

repeat the operation until the goods in the mill have had sufficient 
soap removed. 

The soaping-machine, which has of late years come into use, 
is a great help in making even applications, for the goods will be 
soaped properly with this machine, and at a great saving of 
material. This machine is simple and easily constructed. It 




Soaping Machine. 



consists of a soap-tank, in which the goods are immersed, and a 
pair of squeeze rolls or mammoth wringer, through which they 
pass, thereby squeezing out all surplus soap and leaving them in 
good condition for fulling. See Fig. 4. 

Heat. Thus far the last agency employed in fulling has not 
been discussed, that is, heat. In fulling, the moisture and pres- 
sure are supplied, but the heat generates itself in the process by 
means of friction. While it is a .necessary factor in fulling, it 
must nevertheless be closely watched, for too much heat, especially 
that generated by friction, will speedily weaken the fiber to such 
an extent that the goods, instead of coming from the mills in 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 17 

good condition, will be tender and practically useless. Therefore 
this point must be watched closely, and if too much heat is 
generated, fresh air should be let in to force out the heated air 
and thus keep the temperature down. When pieces get hot the 
moisture evaporates rapidly, and frequent examinations should be 
made to see that they do not get too dry. A little fresh soap 
added to keep the moisture at the right point, will lubricate the 
goods and also keep down the heat. 

Generally cloth shrinks faster in length than in width, but 
this is not always the case. As the shrinkage lengthways is 
controlled by the trap referred to, a question arises as to the best 
time to apply this pressure. The aim should be to bring the goods 
up both in width and length at the same time, for if they come 
up faster in width than in length, they will undoubtedly be too 
narrow when they are shrunk sufficiently in length. If, however, 
the goods come up faster in length than in width, some of the 
weight can be taken off, thus easing the shrinking process. How- 
ever, it will not do to take the trap off wholly, for then the goods 
will begin to stretch, and being warm will quickly lose all that 
has been gained in shrinkage. Therefore, if the goods do- not 
shrink fast enough in width, put more pressure on the springs ; or 
if this should not seem advisable, crowd the pieces more in the 
rolls. This latter is done by taking out each piece and running 
it in again about one-half ; then take the end and bring it over the 
guide roll and fold it in the piece as it runs into the rolls, start 
the machine and run it until the end comes around; then take the 
end wrapped in the piece and sew both ends together, thus dou- 
bling the cloth and making it run as though two pieces were in the 
mill. This increases the pressure, and as the piece takes only 
half the time to run around, the capacity for shrinking is doubled. 
On long cuts this can be continued by running in one-third of the 
piece and folding the end in the cloth and ' tying it. Run in 
the piece to the end and it will be found that three thicknesses 
are under the roll. 

When the goods have been shrunk both, in width and length, 
and just before they are taken from the mill, give each one a 
dipperful of fresh soap, to aid in the washing ; then run until the 
seam comes to the front ; cut it, start up and run until the whole 



18 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



piece has passed through the roll; then stop the machine, lift off 
the cover of the trap, and fasten it so that it will stay up. Take 
the pieces from the mill, having first seen that another set are 
ready to put in. 

The tacking strings should be immediately removed and the 
goods opened out, so that the air can get to them. This is 
especially necessary where they cannot go directly into the washer, 
for it will not do to let them lie in hot piles any length of time. 
To be very exact and do everything in a sure and safe manner, 
the goods should be opened .out and perched before another set is 
put in the mill. This is done to detect damages if there are any, 
for nuts and bolts may loosen, and wood is likely to wear, each of 
which may cause much trouble. If goods are perched before the 
mill is started again, the cause of these imperfections may be ascer- 
tained and remedied before further harm is done. 

As soon as the pieces are out of the mill, and before another 
set is started, the fuller takes the tickets and enters them in a 
bo.ok, for future reference. The date, number, style, yards and 
weight from loom, the number of mill and side of same, amount of 
shrinkage, both of width and length, and running time in the mill, 
should be entered. When done properly and carefully .it will be 
found of great assistance in determining the treatment of goods of 
the same style at some future time, and will also form a record 
of the treatment of goods each day. A convenient form of record 
is as follows : 



6 
la 




.a 

B 










9 "^ 




6 

a 


to 
^^ 

a 


1902. 




















Apr. 5 


1672 


253 


481 


2C1 


4K. 


3 


56 


S'A 


Mill holes 




1851 


253 


48'^ 


205 


4L. 


2^ 


56 


5'A 






1942 


265 


463 


16* 


3R. 


2 ■ 


56/2 


2-/2 






1282 


265 


46 


165 


3L. 


2 


56 


2H 





EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. How should knots be treated on close-finished goods? 



26 



v- 




IMPROVED ROTARY FULLING MILL 

Rodney Hunt Machine Co. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 19 

2. What is the advantage derived from thorough inspection? 

3. Describe the fulling process concisely in your own words, 
giving the manner of regulating the shrinkage. 

4. When should places not be mended ? 

5. What practical purpose does inspection serve? 

6. When and where should it be employed ? 

7. Which is the best way of tacking, aside from machine 
work? 

8. What are runners ? 

9. In what ways can burlers aid the inspector ? 

10. What especial ends does the record of the fuller serve ? 

11. Give a brief sketch of matter so far studied, touching all 
points of importance. 

Shrinkage. The estimation of the loss sustained in the fin- 
ishing process is one of the most important questions which come 
to the finisher in all his labors ; this is especially true when he 
has before him a new range or a new class of goods. From the 
start he should consider carefully all questions pertaining to the 
different processes and the relative influence of these processes 
upon the fabric, so that he can intelligently provide for the losses 
the goods are sure to sustain. The finisher is well aware that the 
goods as they come from the weave room will lose a certain per- 
centage of their weight in the process of finishing (this cannot be 
avoided), but in order to produce the desired article, judgment 
must be used to provide for all these losses before the actual work 
begins. 

Experience alone will enable a man to estimate what the loss 
is likely to be, and unless he can estimate this, his labors are 
likely to prove unsuccessful. The loss, properly speaking, is not 
confined to weight alone, although this is very perceptible. For 
instance, the loss sustained to the nap of the goods is an item of 
great importance and must be carefully considered. The finisher 
should be able to judge by the make-up of the goods how much 
gigging its surface will stand, provided the proper foundation is 
laid in the fulling mill, and he must be able to produce that 
foundation. It is from the clean weight of the fabric that all 
future calculations must be made. To this is to be added the loss 



a? 



20 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

sustained in fulling, which is the largest that the fabric has to 
bear in the entire process. 

Aside from the amount of dirt, grease and other foreign 
matter which is loosened but not removed in the fulling, there is 
a large loss due to the wear and tear of the process. How large 
this is, may be determined by taking a piece well scoured and 
cleansed and then fulling it in a perfectly clean mill. When the 
process is completed it will be found that quite an amount of 
stock has gathered on all projections, as well as at the bottom of 
the mill. This takes place under any and all conditions, and can- 
not be avoided; therefore, it must be provided for beforehand. In 
the scouring or washing, the grease and other matter loosened in 
the fulling is here finally removed, and the loss here consists also 
in a certain amount of stretch, caused by the running of the goods 
in the washer. The gigging, coming next, reduces the weight by 
the removal of the short fibers, which are not sufficiently felted to 
stand the strain. The pulling out of a certain am omit of felted 
fibers also takes place. No matter how carefully the gigging is 
conducted this cannot be avoided, for one of two things is sure to 
happen : the fiber or the teasel point will give way ; and it is only 
a question of which can best stand the strain. The ability to 
withstand the strain is about evenly divided, for there will be as 
many teasel points broken as fibers pulled out. Although this is 
a necessary adjunct of the gigging or teaseling process, the loss 
sustained must be taken into account and provided for. 

The loss in shearing seems larger than it actually is, but still 
is large enough to merit attention. The different stretchings the 
goods receive as they pass over the various machines all tend 
toward creating a loss, and one and all must be taken into consid- 
eration before proceeding to full the goods. 

The causes for loss enumerated are due chiefly to the process 
of finishing, but there are other causes outside of the finishing 
department which have a bearing upon the question. The amount 
of oil used on the stock, as well as the quality and condition of 
same at the time of using, will affect the greasy state of the goods. 
The color also exerts its influence; for dark-colored goods gener- 
ally lose more than the lighter shades. It is safe to say that in 
general the loss on woolen goods from all sources will range from 



2» 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 21 

1 ■ ' 

10 to 25 per cent, and on some goods even more than the latter 
figure. 

As soon as the per cent of probable loss has been determined, 
(3alculate the shrinkage. One yard usually forms the basis of all 
calculations ; for if one yard is fulled and shrunk properly, it follows 
that the rest will act in a similar manner. Therefore, one yard is 
marked oif on the end of the cut, about a yard from the seam. 
This makes it easier to determine when goods have shrunk suffi- 
ciently, and is safer than measuring the whole piece. 

Calculation. An example of determining the shrinkage re- 
quired to bring the goods to the right weight is as follows : A 
piece of cloth is received in the finishing room weighing 26 ounces 
" from the loom," and it should weigh 24 ounces per yard when it 
is finished. The loss sustained during the process is estimated at 
20 per cent. In order to fuid how much the piece would weigh if 
it were not shrunk, we proceed as follows : 26 ounces X .20 = 5.2 
ounces; that is, multiply the weight by thfe per cent of loss. 
Subtracting the 5.2 ounces from the 26 ounces would give 20.8, 
this beino' the weight of the sfoods without shrinkage. Here 
we have practically two problems in arithmetic, which may be 
combined into one problem by multiplying the 26 ounces by the 
remaining .80, as follows: 26 X -80, which gives us 20.80, the 
same as the two processes given above. Then comes the question, 
if 1 yard, or 36 inches, weighs only 20.8, which is 3.2 ounces less 
than what the goods are required to weigh, how many inches 
would this yard represent of 24 ounces, and to what point must 
each yard be shrunk to have the whole piece weigh 24 ounces to the 
yard? To find this, multiply the actual weight, 20.8, by 36 inches, 
and divide the product by 24, the weight wanted .per yard. Thus : 

(20.8 X 36) -^ 24 = 31.2, pp -Q-^ X 36 ^ ^^ ^ Therefore, it 

is found that each yard has to be shrunk until it measures 31.2 
inches in order to have the whole piece weigh 24 ounces to" the 
yard. If cancellation is employed, the whole figuring process 
may be done in one example by putting all the figures which 
have to be multiplied above the line and the divisors below, as 
follows : 



nt% 



22 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

26 X 80 V 36 

rr 31 A, as above. 31.2 subtracted from 36 g'ives 

100 X 24 ^° ^ 

4.8 inclies to be shrunk per yard. The latter method is to be 

preferred, and should be well studied. The following rules govern 

the different processes : 

To find amount of loss, multiply the gross weight by the per 
cent of loss. 

To find clean weight, subtract amount of loss from gross 
weight. 

To find shrinkage required, multiply clean weight by inches 
in one yard and divide by weight wanted. 

To find clean weight by one process, multiply gross weight 
per yard by the clean weight expressed decimally, thus .80. 

To perform all the three operations at once, proceed as fol- 
lows : Multiply gross weight by clean weight expressed decimally, 
and this by inches in yard (36), and divide by 100 multiplied by 
the weight wanted. 

The foregoing examples cover only those goods where the 
shrinkage alone is relied upon to make correct weight. This is 
the simplest part of all the calculations met with in finishing. 

Next comes the other extreme, or goods where no shrinkage 
is given, but where the weight is regulated by flock only. These 
cloths are generally union cassimeres, and they usually come from 
the loom lighter than they are to finish. These goods, which have 
a cotton warp and wool substitute filling, do not lose much in the 
finishing; 15 per cent loss is a fair estimate, subject, of course, to 
variations. For example, a piece of union cassimere (narrow) 
comes from the loom weighing 9 ounces, and is to finish 12 
ounces per yard. The loss is 15 per cent. This loss and the 
extra 3 ounces are to be made up by flocks. The clean weight, 
according to explanations given, is 9 X -85 = 7.65. This is sub- 
tracted from the 12 ounces, weight wanted; 12 — 7.65 = 4.35 
ounces, the amount of flocks to be fulled into the piece to make 
the required weight per yard when finished. 

Whenever flocks are used it is found that about one-half of 
the flocks put on the goods will felt on sufficiently to stay, and 
therefore the amount required is double what the figures give. If 
every particle of flocks of the 4.35 ounces would felt on the fabric, 



30 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 23 

it would be an easy matter to make weight by flocks ; but flocking 
is generally resorted to on low-grade goods, where the stock itself 
is not of the best felting quality. The flocks also vary consid- 
erably ; therefore, the whole must be closely watched and good 
judgment used. In the case given, 4.35 doubled gives 8.70 ounces 
per yard of flocks. 

Rule : Multiply g-ross weight per yard by clean weight deci- 
mally expressed, and subtract this from required weight and 
multiply by 2. 

The next example is for another kind of goods. There is 
given a certaui amount of flocks, and the rest of the weight is 
made b}^ shrinkage. A piece weighs 22 ounces per yard from the 
loom, and is to finish 24 ounces. Four ounces of the weight are to 
be made up by flocks, the rest by shrinkage. As in all cases, the 
clean weight is first found, and to this is added the amount to be 
made up by flocks. The loss is 20 percent. 22 X .80=17.6; to 
this add the 4 ounces to be made by flocks, making 21 .6. Multiply 

3 

21 y S^ 

this by 36 and divide by 24, the weight wanted. — — ^ — =32.4 

2 
Subtracting this from 36 gives the number of inches to be shrunk 
per yard to give correct weight. It must not be forgotten to 
double the flocks. 

Rule : Fmd clean weight per yard and add number of ounces 
to be made up by flocks. Multiply this by 36 and divide by 
weight wanted ; subtract result from 36, which gives mches to be 
shrunk per yard. 

Another example : The goods are to shrink 3 inches per yard, 
and the weight made by flocks. Weight 22 ounces per yard from 
loom, to finish 24 ounces. The loss is 20 per cent ; shrinkage, 3 
inches to the yard. First find clean weight, 22 X -80 = 17.6, 
then find how much the goods will weigh if shrunk 3 inches to 
the yard; thus, 36 X 17.6 4- 33 = 19.2 ounces, :=: weightperyard 
after being shrunk. Subtract this from 24, which gives 4.8 ounces, 
or weight to be made by flocks ; double this amomit being required, 
or 9.6 ounces per yard. 

Rule : Find clean weight and multiply by 36 less the number 



81 



24 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

of inches to be shrunk. Subtract result from weight wanted and 
multiply by 2, which gives the weight of flocks actually required. 

In another class of cotton-warp goods the cotton is intended 
to be hidden. This is accomplished by stretching the pieces 
lengthways, which forces the filling to the face, thus covering the 
warp threads. On these goods, instead of shrinkage, therefore, 
there is stretch, and the required weight is made by flocks. 

Certain goods from loom weigh 20 ounces and are to finish 20 
ounces ; loss is 15 per cent, and stretch 3 inches per yard. After 
clean weight is found, which is 17 ounces, multiply by 36 and 

divide by 36 plus 3 inches stretch, or 39 inches. = 15.7 

o J 

ounces per yard. Subtract this from the required weight, which 
gives 4.3 ounces to be made up; or 8.6, ounces of flocks required 
per yard. 

Hule : Find clean weight and multiply by 36 and divide by 36 
plus the stretch per yard; subtract result from weight required 
and multiply by 2, which gives the amount of flocks to be used. 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

Mention the different agencies causing loss in the finishing 
process. 

Which of them is usually the heaviest? ' 

In what ways is this loss made good ? 

Work out in all details the following examples: 





Wt. f 


■om 


Wt. 


Per cent 






Ivooin. 


Wanted. 


of Loss. 




1. 


23.5 


OZ. 


26 OZ. 


17 Yz How 


much shrinkage ? 


2. 


20 




22 " 


15 


" flocks? 


3. 


22 




16 '• 


\2% 


u 


4. 


8 




11 " 


14 


U (1 


5. 


24.2 




26 " 


22 >^ 5 OZ. 'flocks. " 


" shi'inkage? 


6. 


20 




20 " 


20 3 " " " 


<< 


7. 


20 




20 " 


20 .3 in. shrinkage. 


Give flocks. 


8. 


12 




24 " 


25 4 " How much flocks ? 


9. 


20 




21 " 


12 Stretch 2 in. " 


U (1 


10. 


16 




16 " 


10 " 3 " 


(1 it 


11. 


18 




20 " 


15 " 1 " 


U (( 


12. 


18 




18 " 


12>^ *< 4 '« »* 


U (« 



sa 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 25 

Flocks. The use of flocks in tlie finishing of woolen goods is 
not always a necessity, but is resorted to chiefly on cheap goods. 
There are instances where flocks are a necessity on the better 
classes of cloths, but those cases are rare. When the felting 
quality of the stock is of such character that sufficient shrinkage 
for the desired weight cannot be acquired, of course flocks must 
be used. Again, perhaps the nature of the weave is such as to 
prevent goods from shrinking sufficiently to make the proper 
weight, and in these cases, also, flocks are used. Consumers 
generally regard all flocks as a detriment to woolen goods, and 
they are reluctant to buy cloths containing them; but if the flocks 
are properly applied, and if the quality is of the right sort, there is 
no reason why they should be a detriment (at least, if not carried 
to excess). When, as in some mills, the goods are woven the year 
round of the same weight, and when the heavier or winter-weight 
goods have to be made in the finishing room, flocks are used in 
such quantities as to become a nuisance. Still, quite an amount 
of this class are yearly made and sold, which shows that there is 
a certain trade which demands them. On kerseys, however, even 
the finer grades, a good flock well felted in, is more of a help than 
a detriment to the fabric, for the flocks tend to fill up all crevices, 
and a good solid piece of cloth is the result. Then, also, on other 
face-goods which depend upon a close felt for the finish, flocks 
help in so far as they lengthen the fulling process, and this in turn 
gives a finer and a closer felt. 

In order to perform flocking successfully, two things must be 
considsred, as they are of the utmost importance for good work : 
these are, first, the quality of the flocks, and next, the manner of 
applying tl em. 

The most important of these is the quality of the flocks to be 
used, and here the most glariiig mistakes are generally made. The 
flocks should possess enough of the felting quality to combine well 
with the goods, and if this is lacking, it matters little how care- 
fully the process of flocking is conducted, for it will not be a 
success. 

The quality of the flocks may be inferior in point of stock, or 
if that is not the case, the felting qualities may have been destroyed 
by grinding, instead of cutting theiu. This subject I'eoeives 



88 



26 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

proper attention in the Appendix, and therefore need not be en- 
larged upon at this time ; suffice it to say that the first considera- 
tion should be the proper quality of the flocks to be applied. 

The next in importance is the manner of applying flocks, and 
upon this point there is quite a diversity of opinion. In reality it 
matters little what method is employed, provided the amount of 
flocks required is put on the goods in such a manner that it will 
stay. If this latter point is accomplished, the method employed is 
the correct one, even if it is at variance with other ideas. All 
cloths intended for flocking are carefully tacked, so as to protect the 
face. One mathod is to take the flocks and rub them into the 
back of the goods before they go into the fulling mill. Another 
is to put the goods in the mill and start up dry then the flocks are 
applied and the goods are run for about fifteen minutes, so that 
the flocks may be evenly distributed. The goods are then wet. 
Another method is to put the goods in the mill and soap them, and 
when they begin to get warm apply the flocks. Still another way 
is to apply part of the flocks dry, and the rest after the goods have 
run long enough to get warm. 

In considering the merits of these methods it will be noticed 
that when flocks are applied to goods in the dry state there is 
nothing to prevent their getting on the face, no matter how well 
the goods are tacked. The fabric is drj^ and still open, and the 
flocks are absolutely certain to work through to the face. A cloth 
will never look as well when flocks are applied dry. Therefore, 
the first two methods mentioned are open to this objection ; still, 
circumstances may be such that it is wise to adopt them. The 
third method is generally considered the best, for when goods get 
warm and commence to felt, it is reasonable to suppose that the 
flocks will take better. The only point which detracts from this 
is the necessity of putting on all the flocks in too short a time, 
thus retarding the fulling too much, unless that is the object in 
view. Flocks should be put on a little at a time after the goods 
become warm, and should be sprinkled evenly and lightly, thus 
they will be at once held to the goods. In this way it takes less 
flocks to make weight, for a smaller quantity will be found at the 
bottom of the mill. 

The great objection to this method is the time and care 



84 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 27 

required. Each machine requires the whole attention of one man 
for tlie time being, which, especially in large mills, is out of the 
question, for it makes the labor cost of the finishing too high ; 
therefore, flocking part dry and part wet is used when excessively 
large quantities of flocks are consumed, in order to reduce the 
cost. There is no machine which aids the fuller in this labor, 
and consequently methods are employed which are not always in 
harmony with the best finish which can be produced. 

Correct Weight of Finished Fabric. When making weight 
by shrinkage it is always a good plan to set the goods up half an 
inch or so more than the actual amount required to make weight. 
This will allow for the stretch immediately sustained in the 
washer. If the amount of shrinkage is small and the goods full 
easily, it is a good plan to let the trap down on the goods without 
adding any weights. After the goods get warm, stop and exam- 
ine them at stated intervals, to note the progress. If the width 
comes up faster than the length, it is necessary to put more 
weight on the trap, increasing the pressure. If, however, the 
goods come up faster in length than in width, take off some 
weight, or take the trap off for a while. This, of course, is not 
necessary in every set of pieces that are in the mill, but should 
be done when a new style or grade of cloth is started. After the 
first set of a style has been fulled, all others of the same style will 
run very nearly the same, so that it is only necessary to remember 
how it has been treated in order to go ahead with them. 

If the memory cannot be relied upon, it is a good plan to 
have a notebook and put down such things. 

When making weight by means of flocks, the mill is not 
cleaned after every set, and the flocks are allowed to gather in 
corners, to stay there until the general cleaning is done on Satur- 
days. By doing this, the amount of flocks put on will all go on 
the goods, and the chances are that weights made the latter part 
of the week, when everything has assumed its regular shape in 
this respect, will be evener than those of the first few days. 
Monday mornings, especially, it will pay to be generous with the 
amount of flocks applied. These remarks seem to indicate that 
there would be a good deal of unevenness in flocking, but it will 
be found that with watching and good judgment this is not so. It 



60 



28 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FimSHING. 

is not all done by following a given recipe, for those things are of 
little account in finisliing if followed closely. There are few hard 
and fast rules in finishing, as a whole, and none as regards the use 
of flocks. The making of weight by shrinkage and flocks com- 
bined, presents a phase of work which differs from the rest, in that 
if flocks are applied, as is usual, in the wet, the shrinking of the 
goods lengthways will be stopped too long and, as is often the 
case, the goods will come up in width long before they are fulled 
in length. Of all conditions this is the worst, for the goods will 
either be light in weight or narrow, neither of which is desir- 
able. This may be overcome by giving the amount of Hocks, if 
it is not too large, immediately after the goods are soaped ; and 
as the flocks will absorb considerable moisture, it will be nec- 
essary to give more soap afterwards, in order to bring the mois- 
ture np to the point where it should be. If the amount of flocks 
is large, give one-half of it first, and just before the goods get too 
warm, give the other half ; then, when the felting begins, the con- 
ditions will be such that with a little care the length and width 
will come up even. 

Soap. Thus far much has been said about soaping and 
soap, and before considering the fulling process any further, 
this factor will be considered. The soaps used in woolen mills 
are classed under two distinct heads, viz. : soda and potash soaps. 
As is mdicated by the name, soda soaps are so called on account 
of the saponifying agency employed, the fatty ingredients being 
saponified by means of caustic soda, while in potash soaps caustic 
potash is used for the same purpose. The difference, therefore, in 
these two kinds of soap is primarily in the saponifying agency 
employed in their production : thus the properties of caustic soda 
and caustic potash should be understood. Caustic soda is prepared 
from carbonate of soda by the use of caustic lime. It is less 
soluble in water than caustic potash, and is also less caustic. 
Caustic potash, or hydrate of potassium, is also produced from 
carbonate of potash by means of caustic lime. The causticizing 
action of the lime upon either consists in this, that it withdraws 
the carbonic-acid gas from the alkali and substitutes its own 
water. The action of soda soap upon the wool fiber is anything 
but beueficial ; still, this soap is almost universally used iu this 



36 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 29 

country. In Europe it is conceded by the best manufacturers 
that without the use of potash soap it would be well-nigh impos- 
sible to produce the finer counts of yarn. Soda has a tendency to 
render the wool fiber harsh and brittle, and also imparts a yellow- 
ish color, while potash softens the fiber and makes it whita, as it 
should be. Careful examination reveals the fact that the wool on 
the sheep's back is naturally covered with a waxy, oily substance 
called grease or suint, and that this substance consists of about 
50 per cent of potash combined with some fatty matter, and with 
practically no trace of soda. This explains why the washing of 
the sheep vnth clear water cleanses the wool to such a large ex- 
tent. Potash, as stated, is easily soluble in water, and takes along 
enough dirt and fatty matter to make the simple washing of the 
sheep before shearing of great benefit to the wool. This might be 
regarded as a hint from Nature, but unfortunately very little heed 
is paid to it. There are some very strong reasons why this is dis- 
regarded : 

First.— The fact that a potash soap is a soft soap and is by 
many regarded as inferior in value to the hard soda soaps. Manu- 
facturers think they are paying for too much water when buying 
potash soaps, but in reality there is less water in a potash soap 
than there is in the hard soda soaps. Some of the materials used 
in making soda soaps have a great affinity for water, especially 
cocoanut oil. More water can be put into a cocoanut-oil soap 
than in any other and still allow the soap to remain hard. 

Second. — Such things as refuse fats, tallow, etc., are not suit- 
able for a potash soap, oil being required in its make-up. Formerly 
fish oils and olive oil were used, but olive oil being expensive, fish 
oil took its place. The objectionable smell of this ingredient, 
which will cling to it and impart to the goods a peculiar odor also 
has, no doubt, much to do with the use of soda soap. However, 
since the manufacture of cotton-seed oil has been brought to such 
perfection, this product successfully takes the place of fish oil, and 
a satisfactory potash soap may be obtained by its use. 

Third. — That it was impossible some years ago to procure 
a pure caustic potash for soap making, but such is not the case 
now, for any amount of pure potash may be obtained in the 
market to-day. Formerly only wood ashes or Montreal potashes 



87 



30 WOOLEN AND WORJTED FINISHING. 

were obtainable. These ashes contain from 3 to 6 per cent of 
soda and generally about 20 per cent of impurities, so that the 
production of a good potash soap was a difficult matter and quite 
expensive. A good potash soft soap made from cotton-seed oil 
can be produced at a lower cost than a tallow hard soda soap. 
Hard soda soap can be mad^ without boiling, by what is 
termed the cold process. This is made possible by the 
use of caustic soda, which can be bought readily in large 
quantities. 

Recipes. For fulling purposes the following process will give 
one of the best soaps that can be had : Take eight (8) pounds of 
powdered caustic soda and four (4) pounds of caustic potash, and 
make a lye with 20 gallons (British standard 200 pounds) of water; 
then melt 72 pounds of tallow, and when the lye cools to about 
80° F., pour it into the tallow in a small steady stream, stirring 
mean whilewith a paddle until ail the lye has been added ; let it 
stand well covered for about a week, and a hard soap will be the re- 
sult, which for effectiveness and purity cannot be equalled. For 
making a pure potash soap, proceed as follows: Place 50 
pounds of pure caustic potash in an earthenware vessel with 5 
gallons, or 50 pounds of water. Stir once or twice ; it will dis- 
solve at once and become quite hot. Let it stand until the lye 
thus made is nearly cold, or about 80° F. Place in a convenient 
vessel for mixing 20 gallons of cotton-seed oil and about 20 
pounds of clean, melted tallow. Pour the lye into this mixture of 
oil and tallow in a small, steady stream, and stir with a fiat, 
wooden paddle. Continue this until all the lye is run in, and 
until the oil and lye are thoroughly combined and is in appeal - 
ance like honey. Then cover up the vessel and put it in a warm 
place until the next morning ; the oil and lye will then be found 
thoroughly combined. The result will be about 300 pounds of a 
highly concentrated neutral potash soap, which, however, will 
be improved by keeping a week or two before using. The 
soap thus produced has not the appearance of ordinary potash 
soap, being slightly opaque. As far as practical use is con- 
cerned, however, it is very much better, because it contains 
less wa,ter than the common potash soap which is usually sold.. 
It is as near neutral as it can be, and is intended for line 



38 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 31 

scouring purposes and fulling. The strength of the soap for 
fulling, especially for fulling in the grease, may be obtained by 
the use of refined pearl ashes. Under no circumstance should 
sal soda, soda ash, crystal carbonate or alkali be used with such 
soap as this. As already stated, this soap is highly concentrated. 
For use in fulling, taike about 100 pounds of it and add about 50 
pounds of water. Heat gently and stir, so as to mix well. As 
soon as the water is taken up stop heating, and a clear homoge- 
neous and much stiffer soap will be produced. To regulate the 
strength add pearl ashes to the water before heating in quantity 
sufficient to give the required strength. If 5 pounds of refined 
pearl ashes are added to the water to 100 pounds of the potash soap, 
as described, a good strength fulling soap is obtained. The advan- 
tage of making one's own soap does not consist alone in the point 
of economy, but very largely in that of efficiency, for the reason 
that there is an absolute certainty of having an unadulterated and 
uniform soap. An adulterated soap, and there are many, is not 
only dearer from an economical point of view than a pure soap, 
because it will not do as much work, but often the adulterations 
have a most injurious effect in the case of fulling or scouring 
delicate fabrics or light colors. All this may be avoided by 
making one's own soap. Adulterated soaps are chiefly, if not 
solely, found among soda soaps. One of the most common and 
harmless adulterations practiced in soap making is the quantity of 
water which can be gotten into the soap without its becoming 
soft. Sulphate of soda, alkaline solutions, soluble silicate, Fuller's 
earth and starch form some of the adulterants used. As it is 
quite an item in a year's soap bill to have the water reduced to 
its lowest possible point, the users of soap should be able to deter- 
mine for themselves the amount of water contained in the soap 
they are using. 

Soap Tests. A simple method of finding the amount of water 
in soap is to carefully weigh a few thin slices of it. These slices 
are dried at 221° F., for as long a time as there is any decrease 
in weight. The loss in weight is the measure of the uncombined 
water in the amount of soap under treatment, and from this the 
percentage of uncombined water is easily figured. Cocoanut oil 
has been mentioned as one of the materials used for making a soap 



89 



32 . WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

which is able to hold more uncombined water than any other, and 
it also serves as a good medium for the introduction of any of the 
other adulterants mentioned. Cotton-seed oil is another oil sus- 
ceptible of adulteration, not alone to water, but also to Fuller's 
earth and silicate of soda. Tallow-chip soaps generally contain 
quite an amount of water, and often nearly as large an amount of 
starch. 

While water may be easily estimated, the amount of starch 
is not as easily found. Any salts, if added to the soap, such as 
alkaline, silicates, sulphates, etc., may be detected by boiling a 
sample of the soap in alcohol. The soap will readily dissolve, 
but not so the adulterants. These will form a residue, which is 
collected in a filter, washed with hot alcohol and weighed, to find 
the percentage contained in the soap. 

The relative merits of soda and potash soaps as regards the, 
finishing of woolen goods is, therefore, not to be sought for in any 
of the qualities of these soaps, but is wholly a question of price 
and habit. As soda soaps, then, are the kind most used, a few 
words as to the manner of using these soaps in the finishing room 
may be of advantage. As soda soaps are now produced on such a 
large scale, and by so many different firms, the chances of getting 
a fair article" are very much improved and the chief consideration 
is to get a soap which is uniform the year round. This is of 
great importance, and if a finisher has such a soap he should avoid 
changes. It is the height of folly to frequently change soaps 
when the kind in use gives satisfaction, for you already know 
what you have, but are by no means certain of what you are 
going to get. 

Palm-oil soaps are generally used for fulling purposes, and on 
most goods this kind is superior to any otlier. Tallow soaps have 
the best body, but are so difficult to get rid of that the washing 
process is lengthened to quite an extent whenever they are used. 
They are seldom employed except when a very heavy-bodied soap 
for long fulling is needed. Olive-oil soaps are the finest made, and 
are used only on the finest grade of goods, although they would 
be excellent on any class ; but on account of cost they are not 
used except on the finest grades. 

Strength. When making a batch of soap for the fulling proc- 



40 



WOOLEN" AND WORSTED FINISHING. 33 

ess the length of time the goods are to run in the fulling mill 
must be taken into consideration, for the body of the soap should 
be heavy enough to last through the process and still have some 
vitality left at the end. If the body is not sufficient to last to the 
end of the operation of fulling it will turn watery, thus losing in 
the first place its lubricating power, and the goods will begin to 
chafe and wear more or less in the mill. This might not be in- 
jurious ; but if the soap is spent, all the grease and dirt which have 
been loosened by it during the process, and which the soap should 
hold in suspension until the whole can be removed in the washer, 
will become set again, and dirty goods will be the result. It will 
be found twice as hard to start the grease again, once it becomes 
set, as it was in the first loosening. The body of the soap, how- 
ever, does not start the grease, but simply holds it in suspension 
after it is started ; and for the purpose of starting such grease the 
strength of the soap, produced by alkalies, is relied upon. A 
fulling soap, then, must have body enough to last through the 
process, and strength enough to properly start the grease. Two 
ounces of hard palm-oil soap to each gallon of soft soap to be 
made will give body enough to the soap to last from 1 to 11 
hours fulling; 1-1 ounces of tallow soap would be required to reach 
the same result, or 3 ounces of cotton-seed-oil soap, although this 
latter is used very little for fulling purposes. 

The strength of the soap is not alone regulated by the re- 
quirements of starting the grease, but as it is a powerful aid to 
felting, it is also used to regulate the time required for fulling. 
For instance, if goods do not full as fast with a medium-strength 
soap as they should, an increase in strength will surely shorten 
the time required for fulling. Still this must be carefully con- 
sidered, for it is just as easy to overdo the matter of strength as 
it is to fall short. 

Pure ammoniated alkali is best to use for making fulling soft 
soap, and 3 ounces of this to the gallon will be found to give all 
the strength commonly required of soap. The capacity of the 
tank in which the soap is to be made must be definitely known, 
to be sure how much soap and alkali to put in. It is best not 
to trust to hearsay upon this point; and the finisher coming into a 
new place will create a vastly better impression if he quietly 



41 



34 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

measures liis tank and then tells his employees h,ow much of each 
article he wishes to have used, than if he tries to find out by ask- 
ing how many gallons each tank holds. The rule for finding the 
capacity is simple enough, and should be known by all to whom 
it would be of advantage. Square the diameter in inches, i. e., 
multiply it by itself, then by .7854, and also by the height, and 
divide by 231, the number of cubic inches in a standard liquid 
gallon. 

Another rule, a little shorter, which gives an approximately 
correct result is : Square the diameter, multiply by the depth in 
inches, and also by .0034, and the result will be the gallon capacity 
of the tank. The fractional parts of a gallon do not play an im- 
portant part in these calculations ; in fact, when the contents of a 
tank are found, it is customary to call it three or four gallons less, 
for the tank is never filled to its utmost, because that would pre- 
vent stirring, and also few tanks are set level enough to make it 
possible to fill them completely. 

Application. When the capacity of the tank has been deter- 
mined, let it be filled i full with \yater and turn on the steam. 
Then the soap is made ready and carefully weighed, in order to 
insure uniformity of the different batches. The soap should be 
cut into small pieces, and large chunks should not be allowed to 
go into the tank, for it is not only important to use the proper 
quantity of soap, but the soap should be put in in such a manner 
as to readily dissolve. When the soap is ready, place it in the tank 
and bring to a boil, after which the steara is turned partly off so 
as to keep it boiling moderately. Then weigh off the alkali, and 
when the soap shows signs of getting soft add the alkali to it and 
let the whole boil easily for five hours. This is ample time to 
insure a thorough combination of soap, alkali and water. After 
boiling the stated time the. water is turned on and the tank filled 
up, keeping the steam on at a good head during the filling up, and 
frequently stirring with a paddle. When the tank is filled turn 
off the steam and let the whole get cold. This will take probable 
a day or two. It will then be found that a fine-grained, well 
combined soft soap is the result. Always wait until the soap is 
cold before using it, for nothing is likely to produce worse results 
than warm soap put on the goods in the fulling mill. The goods 



42 




LEFT HAND SIDE OF STANDARD SIX-STRING CLOTH WASHER 

The James Hunter Machine Co. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 35 

are sure to be uneven, and on fancy goods clouds and blotches 
will frequently show themselves. The soap must be well stirred 
and broken up before putting it on the goods, or else it will leave 
the pail in large chunks, which cause much spattering and have 
a tendency to leave dry places. These places would eventually 
become moistened, and the fuller being aware of tlie fact should 
wait somewhat longer before he examines the goods to see if they 
are wet enough ; but if he should not wait, and when examining 
the goods should happen to find just such dry places, he would at 
once put on more soap and find later that the goods then have too 
much. Therefore, have the soap well broken up, so that it may be 
poured from the pail in a steady small stream, and no evil results 
will be met with. 

It was stated before that the advantages of making one's own 
soap are of great importance, but in some cases this may not be 
true. The making of one's own soap by the use of saponified red 
oil is one of these cases, and merits attention here. It is argued 
that as red oil is chiefly used on the stock when prepared for card- 
ing, a soap prepared from the same material will more readily 
assimilate and thus make it easier to remove such oil from the 
goods. This line of reasoning has every appearance of truth, but 
in actual practice it is quite different. It is an established fact 
that perfect saponification cannot be obtained with the use of 
simple alkali, no matter how long or how hard the stuff is 
boiled ; it takes a causticized alkali for perfect saponification, and 
such will take place whether heat is employed or not. What can 
be gotten from red oil and alkali by boiling is simply a combi- 
nation of watei', oil and alkali resembling soap, but which will 
ultimately separate again if left standing long enough. Further- 
, more, a part of the alkali used in making this red-oil soap goes to 
combine the oil and water into a semblance of soap; but how much 
of the alkali is taken up in this way is an unknown quantity and 
varies with conditions over which the maker has practically no 
control, and therefore causes an unevenness in the mixture which 
is not at all to be desired. 

Red-oil soap also lacks the softening qualities which are so 
necessary in the finishing of woolen goods. It is a curious fact 
that the goods which need the softening qualities of a good soap 



86 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

more than any others are usually those which are treated with 
this kind of soap. Low grade goods are about the only ones on 
which it is used, for the manufacturer of the better class of goods 
does not care to use this quality. 

Cost. In point of cost it may be well to compare red-oil soap 
with a good No. 1 palm-oil soap. One gallon of saponified red 
oil will make about 30 gallons of soap of a consistency to last for 
about 1^ hours falling. The cost of the oil alone would be about 
45 cents per gallon, making about 1| cents for the gallon of soap. 
This is simply the cost of the oil, leaving the alkali and the long 
boiling out of the question. No. 1 palm-oil soap can be bought 
for about 61 cents per pound ; and 2 ounces of this, with less alkali 
and the less boiling, will give a soap which will last as long and 
be twice as valuable to the finisher. The cost is ii of a cent, and 
shows, therefore, less than half the cost of the inferior grade. 

Usually one of the first considerations is the cost of an arti- 
cle ; though for the best results this question should receive no 
consideration except when articles of equal merit are at issue, 
but in the case of red-oil soap even this is reversed. 

Roping. Having carefully considered how soap should be 
prepared for fulling, and before taking up the next process, a few 
words as to the troubles met with in fulling may be of advan- 
tage. One of the most frequent difficulties the fuller has to con- 
tend with is the rolling and roping of the goods in the mill. This 
is due chiefly to the construction of the cloth, an^ probably cannot 
be avoided on some styles. Whenever this trouble shows itself 
the mill should be stopped at once and the goods taken out and 
well shaken, so that they will open out in good shape ; afterwards 
run them into the mill again, but this time take the other end 
first, so as to have the cloth run wrong end first, and in the oppo- 
site way from which it was started. When in the mill with the 
ends sewn together start up and give a little fresh soap, just enough 
to give a little extra lubrication. Be sure that the goods do not 
become too wet. Usually it will be found that they will run 
properly, but if they still persist in roping, this will have to be 
repeated, in order to have them finish all right. 

It is impossible to shrink goods properly when they are in a 
solid rope, and uneven fulling is sure to result. The shaking out 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 37 

of the goods is as important as the turning end for end, and 
should not be neglected, but very thoroughly" performed. 

Choking. When first starting the mill, pieces will often 
choke up behind the trap, forming into a very hard lump. This 
is chiefly found on heavy-weight goods and solid weaves, where 
the pieces are of a somewhat firm and stiff nature. Such goods 
will shoot straight through the trap, and if the back cover is open 
will run over the back of the mill to the floor ; but when the cover 
is down the goods will accumulate back of the trap and get into a 
hard lump there. To prevent this let doT\m the trap about half- 
way ; this will stop the goods from shooting out behind, and they 
will accumulate in the trap-box. When this is full they will be 
crowded out and fall to the bottom of the mill. 

When the goods are run double or treble they will often 
catch up and form in hard knots, thus stopping the mill. This 
can be prevented by measuring the cut properly before it is put 
in the mill. Thus if a 40-yard piece is to run double, m-easure 
20 yards and tie a string around the piece at this place ; then 
run the piece into the mill until this string comes up ; put the 
first end into the center of the piece at the string and tie it again ; 
run it till the end comes ; then pull out the first end, sew the 
two together and the goods will run smoothly. When goods are 
wanted to run treble, measure off one-third the length of the 
piece, and proceed as before, and there will be no trouble. 
A new hand hardly ever has trouble of this kind, for he will 
measure the piece as directed ; but the old hands get so used to it 
and so expert that they can run half a piece without much trouble. 
Every now and then, however, they will find that they have mis- 
calculated, and that the mill is choked up. 

Stop=motion. Most mills are provided with a stop-motion 
which is connected with the front guide-plank. This works on a 
rod, and as soon as a knot forms which cannot readily run through 
the guide-rings, it will lift this guide-plank, and an arm being 
attached outside the mill will knock off the shipper and let the 
belt travel to the loose pulley. If the stop-motions would always 
work there would be no loss except that of time ; but it often 
happens that they work imperfectly and do not throw the shipper 
off enough to stop the mill. The rolls will then turn and the 



38 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



cloth remaining stationary will soon wear through and get hot 
enough to burn. So not only should the goods be put in care- 
fully, but the stop-motion should be well taken care of, thus 
making sure that it works properly at all times. 

Seams. Very often there is a terrible crash at stated intervals 




Fig. 5. Washing Machine. 

in the mill, as if some one had hit it a heavy blow with a sledge 
hammer. When this is heard after the goods have been soaped, 
it indicates that the seam has not been properly made, and it is 
best to stop and examine. It will be found that the seam has 



48 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 39 

either been made too deep, causing a bunch, or else has been made 
so that it will not turn inside, presenting a smooth side to the roll. 
Every time this bunch goes through the rolls it causes a heavy 
knock, which is not only harmful to the mill, but is also hard on 
the seam, and has a tendency to wear it to such an extent that it 
often parts, and the goods are found in the bottom of the mill 
instead of running. It is much easier to make a good seam 
when the goods are dry than after they are soaped, and therefore 
look carefully after the making of the seam, and have it so that it 
will be firm, and still not cause much of a bunch. 

These few precautions carefully remembered and practiced, 
together with a painstaking disposition, will go far towards mak- 
ing fulling a success. 

WASHING. 

Handling of Goods. The next branch of the wei^finishing 
process is the washing of the goods. This part of the work is of 
great importance, especially when it is considered that upou the 
cleanliness of the goods depends in a large measure the future 
success of the finishing process". The great trouble with goods 
which are not properly cleaned, is that this evil is not always 
noticeable at the mill, especially if the pieces are very nearly clean. 
Such goods will pass at the mill as being clean, there being no 
noticeable smell or anything of that kind about them ; and if they 
were immediately consumed, that is, if they are at once cut up and 
made into garments, there would in all probability be very little, 
if any, trouble. But this is not always the case ; sometimes the 
goods will remain in the case for quite a length of time, and in 
such instances, if there is the least trace of grease left in them, it 
will be unpleasantly manifest when the case is opened. The cloth 
will naturally be rejected without any further examination. Per- 
haps this may really be due to only one or two pieces in the whole 
case ; but as the rest have come in contact with those pieces, and 
have been exposed to the influence of the greasy smell, they have 
suffered more or less by such contact, and it is just as well to 
have them rejected, also. If goods were always taken out of the 
case and stored where fresh air had free access to them, in many 
instances there would be no bad results from a trifling uncleanli- 
ness, but as the finisher cannot rely upon any such procedure, he 



40 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



must watch the only place where he can form a definite idea as to 
their cleanliness, and this place is the washer. 

Construction. Fig. 5 represents a machine of this kind. As 
will be seen, it consists of two heavy rolls, usually made of rock 
maple, and of one piece. These rolls serve to draw the cloth 
through the water and act as squeeze rolls at the same time. The 
top roll will" also have elliptical springs attached to it, to increase 
the pressure. In front is shown the water pipe, which has as 
many outlets as there are pieces intended to be run in the machine, 
so that the stream of water from each outlet will act directly on 
the pieces. These machines are built in several sizes to suit the 
necessities of the different mills, and are made to run four, six or 
eight pieces at a 'time. 

Fig. 6 represents the section of the washer rolls. These 
also vary in many machines, but eighteen inches is a fair average. 
They are made of a solid rock maple. . The guide rings, A A, are 
about six inches in diameter, and are usually made of porcelain. 
They are set in planks, as many as there are pieces to be run in 
the washer. The solid roll, B, is about six or eight inches in 
diameter, and also varies, but as long as the top of the roll is on 
a level with the top of lower washer roll, the diameter matters 
little. The roll, D, is set a little above the center of the. top-washer 
roll and is sometimes solid with lags, and often in the shape of 
a spider with lags. Immediately below the bottom roll is found 
the suds-box, E. This box has as many apertures as there are 
pieces to be run in the washer. The suds squeezed out of the 
goods by the rolls gather in this box, and through the apertures 
fall again on the pieces to be used over again until they are thor- 
oughly impregnated with the impurities which they are intended 
to remove. When this time arrives the apertures in the bottom 
of the box may be closed, and at the same time a gate at the side 
opened to let the dirty suds pass out from the washer. This en- 
ables very much quicker washing, for the soap which is squeezed 
out by the rolls does not fall back into the washer, but passes off 
outside. The guides, as will be noted, on the top bar in front 
of the rolls are wooden pins.^ Inside of the washer, right above 
where the water enters, is another guide-plank, which serves to 
keep the pieces separated^ and preveijts their tangling. 



dM. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



41 



In most mills the washing falls under the immediate super- 
vision of the fuller, and if he happens to be the right sort of a. 
man, much will be lifted from the shoulders of the overseer; but 
unfortunately the washing as well as the fulling is too often 
entrusted to cheap and incompetent hands, so that the finisher 
must be constantly on the alert. Even if the men to whom the 
washing is entrusted are competent, the finisher should watch the 
washing process very carefully. 

There is no positive assurance that the goods will be clean 
unless the lather is thick and creamy, and even after the first 
lather, which removes the heavier dirt, has been drawn off and 
becomes whiter, it still should be thick and creamy. There are 




GUIDE 



SUDS BOX 



Fig. 6. Cross-section of Waslier. 

several ways to reach this result, but no matter what way is used, 
make sure that the lather is of the right kind, or poor work will 
result sooner or later. The advocates of a scouring liquor to be 
used in the water, in addition to the soap already in the goods from 
the fulling process, run more chances of failing to have clean goods 
than those who depend upon the soap in the piece (from the fulling 
mill) to produce the lather required to ensure clean goods. If the 
finisher who adopts this latter method sees the goods lather up in 
the washer properly, he may be absolutely sure that the pieces are 
clean. Fresh soap added to the goods in the washer will produce 
a good rich lather, but if the fulling soap has become spent in the 



f9 



42 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

process, and the dirt and grease have become set, it will take 
more than a common washing to start them again to be able to re- 
move them. Under these circumstances it is difficult to learn that 
this has taken place. The finisher simply washes the goods in 
the usual way, and finds later on that the goods are not clean, 
and is lucky if this fact is not detected before the goods leave the 
mill. 

Operation, The pieces are put in the washer at the back, 
each piece being thrown in, keeping both ends out. Then one 
end is passed under the suds-box and through the guide rings and 
pins and put in the roll. The machine is now started to let the 
end through far enough to enable the two ends being sewn 
together. Do not omit to pass the end over the roll which is 
found at the back of the large top washer roll before sewing the 
ends together, for if this is omitted, the pieces will stick to the 
large, roll and go around with it, causing much work to extricate 
them again. This small roll is of vital importance, for without it 
the pieces would cling to the roll instead of going to the bottom 
of the washer. 

The pieces being sewn together form an endless string, from 
which fact the several machines are named either 4, 6, or 8-string 
washers. When all the pieces are put in, start up the machine 
and see that everything runs smoothly. Close all the gates, turn 
on the water, and fill the washer half full of warm water of no 
higher temperature than 110° F. Let the goods run in this for 
about twenty minutes, at the' end of which time a rich and thick 
lather, though dirty, should fill the washer. If it does not 
appear, but is thin and watery, it is clear that the soap from 
the fulling has been spent, and a more thorough washing must 
be given, as will be explained later. At the end of twenty min- 
utes, if everything is as it should "be, open the gates and draw off 
the dirty suds, and then shut the gates again and fill the washer 
half full of Avarm water, and run about fifteen minutes. After a 
few minutes running the lather in the washer will begin to rise. 
This time it will be much whiter, but still, in about ten minutes will 
become almost as thick as before. Now open the gates and draw 
off this suds ; when washer is half empty, open the valves of warm 
water and rinse as long as the supply will allow, but try at any 



50 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. i3 

rate to rinse about twenty minutes with warm water. Then grad- 
ually open the cold water valves, and when open, close those 
which admit the warm water. Rinse about forty-five or fifty 
minutes in cold water, then take the pieces out, and they will be 
as clean as can be desired. 

This will be found to be as satisfactory as any method 
which can be adopted, but unfortunately the question of warm 
water is often a difficult one. It is not infrequent that no provi- 
sions are made by the management for this very important func- 
tion : and if such is the case, the finisher will have to heat the 
water in barrels and apply it with pails. This of course precludes 
the possibility of twenty-five minutes' rinsing in warm water. On 
accomit of such drawbacks it is often advisable to dispense with the 
use of warm water altogether. The washing can, of course, be 
done with cold water, but it is not as good for the pieces. When 
they are washed entirely in cold water they will not feel quite as 
soft as they will when plenty of warm water is used. 

If the supply of warm water is inadequate, the process had 
better be performed entirely with cold. For this purpose turn on 
the water and fill the washer half full, and run thirty minutes, then 
draw off, and repeat the same, after which rinse one hour. If, as 
stated before, goods fail to lather well, draw off the suds at once, 
and give each piece two or three pails of scouring liquor ; then 
let them run twenty-five minutes and repeat this. After the sec- 
ond drawing off, fill the washer half full of warm water and add 
about a quart of aqua ammonia to each piece, and let them run in 
this twenty minutes. Draw off and rinse with warm water fol- 
lowed by cold water for one hour. This will no doubt clean the 
goods. 

It will thus be seen that a good rich lather is not to be relied 
upon when the same is produced by fresh soap, but if it is gotten 
without f]'esh soap, but from the goods as they come from the mill, 
with nothing but water, it is a sure sign that satisfactory results 
will be obtained. 

Under no circumstances stint the rinsing time, but let it be 
thorough, no matter how long it takes. The condition of the 
water has of course much to do with it, for the softer and purer 
it is, the better it will rinse out the soap ; but hard water contain- 



91 



44 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

ing much lime will always be found troublesome unless some 
means can be employed to soften it. While a trace of soap 
remaining in the goods is not positively detrimental to cheviots, 
cassimeres and the like, it becomes quite a factor where goods are 
face finished or piece dyed. Any trace of soap left in the pieces 
will make it nearly impossible to produce the desired finish, and if 
the goods are subjected to the steaming process, the bad effects of 
soap remaining in them will show plainly. Most of the cloudi- 
ness sometimes found in steam-finished cloths is directly traceable 
to this cause. 

The requirements to produce a clean cloth having been estab- 
lished, it is again in order to state how these things can be pro- 
duced without fail. To start the grease it has been shown that 
alkali is required, but after this has accomplished its mission, and 
has started the grease properly, the body of the soap used in the 
fulling must be relied upon to hold this matter in suspension 
until it can, by the action of the water whether warm or cold, 
be removed in the washer. Therefore, at the end of the full- 
ing process, examine each piece by twisting, to see if there is 
any vitality left to the soap. If there is, it will soon show by 
twisting the goods in your hand, and leave no doubt as to whether 
it is soap or a thin watery substance without any resemblance to 
soap. Make sure of this before starting the goods in the washer. 
On fine goods which require a close felt for the finish, such as the 
finest doeskins and broadcloths, it is often necessary to scour 
the goods before fulling, to enable the fulling process to be 
extended, by using a soap which contains little alkali, just barely 
enough to give a good homogeneous soap, which, without the 
addition of alkali, it is next to impossible to produce. 

The term " a perfectly neutral fulling soap " is often used, 
but in point of fact such a thing in a soft-soap cannot be pro- 
duced. The alkali can be reduced to almost nothing, but with- 
out it the hard soap and water will not thoroughly combine, no 
matter liow much it is boiled. 

When scouring "flannels,*' as the pieces are called before 
fulling, put the pieces in the washer and sew the ends together, 
as stated before, then turn on the water (cold), leaving the gates 
open, and thoroughly wet the pieces. Shut off the water, and let 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 45 

the pieces drain by running a while with the gates open. Then 
shut the gates, give each piece three pails of scouring liquor, and 
let them run thirty minutes ; then draw off and repeat this, giving 
about twenty minutes this time. Draw off half of the second 
amount of scouring liquor, replace with warm water, and let run 
twenty minutes more, then rinse in cold water for forty or forty-five 
minutes. 

Worsted Goods, especially fancies, are often nearly scoured 
in the washer when being finished. They are made in the loom, 
and do not need fulling in the sense of the term, but if worsteds 
are run in the fulling mill and soaped there for about twenty min- 
utes, the washing process will be much more easy and sure. If 
this plan is adopted, the same method of washing may be employed. 
The soap used in fulling, and which applied to worsteds is of bet- 
ter body than a mere scouring liquor, has a softening tendency 
which is much to be desired. However, if it is thought best to 
use a scouring liquor for worsteds, one of the best is to take about 
^ pound of pearlash to one gallon of water. This does not need 
to be heated. When it is used in the washer give two pails to a 
piece, adding about ^ pail of fulling soap to a piece. Let the 
pieces run in tliis for half an hour, and then draw off part of the so- 
lution ; replace with warm water, and let run for twenty minutes ; 
then rinse with warm water, followed by cold water, for one hour, 
and the goods will be clean. It must, however, be remembered 
in all these operations that they admit of innumerable changes, and 
.are not given as rules which are warranted for all cases.. Circum- 
stances alter cases in this as well as many other processes. 

Scouring Liquor. A good scouring liquor can be made for 
use on woolen goods as follows : Take 1 ounce of a good grade oi 
soap, or li ounces of cottonseed oil soap, and 3 ounces of alkali 
(pure) to the gallon of water, and boil until all is dissolved. Just 
before the above solution gets cold add i ounce of sal ammoniac 
to the gallon; if added while liquor is hot this would lose too 
much of its value. When cold stir well from the bottom, and 
use as stated. This liquor can be relied upon for all kinds of 
woolen goods, but should not be used on fine worsteds. 

For worsteds make a liquor as follows : Take 2 ounces of 
olive-oil soap and 3 or 4 ounces of alkali to the gallon of water. 



f^d 



46 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

If the alkali is considered too harsh, take 6 ounces of sal soda to 
the gallon. Dissolve by boiling, and add sal ammoniac, as stated 
before. Of all liquors for worsteds, those made from pearlash 
will be found to be the best. 

SPECK DYE. 

On very nearly all classes of goods which are not color- 
ed in the piece, and even on many of those that are, burr or 
speck dyeing is of decided advantage. Wool and yarn-dyed 
eloths ought by all means to be subjected to this process. The 
advantage derived from speck dyeing may be readily seen. If 
two pieces of the same style are finished, one with speck dyeing 
and the other without, and then compared, the one which has not 
received the speck dye will be found to require quite a large 
amount of labor in the way of removing specks, which on the 
other is reduced to very small proportions. In most cases this 
extra labor of removing specks is done by hand, by means of the 
burling or specking irons. The' surface of the goods will never 
look as smooth after leaving the specking table as they did when 
they went there, and often it becomes necessary to return the 
goods to the shear to make them at all presentable. Some of this 
is no doubt due to the carelessness of the operator, but often the 
best of operators pull up fibers which ought not to be disturbed. 
This may be due either to the dullness of the irons used, or to the 
enormous amount of specks to be removed. 

It is not to be supposed that burr dyeing will do away with 
any and all trouble caused by burrs and specks, but it will mate- 
rially lessen such defects, and in many cases do away with them 
entirely. Aside from this, a piece which has been properly burr 
dyed always has a fuller and better appearance than those which 
have not been treated; and while it would be hard to point out 
just why the one looks so much better than the other, the fact 
still remains that there is a decided improvement in the looks of 
the burr-dyed piece over the other. 

The value of burr or speck dyeing being thus easily appar- 
ent, it remains to determine how the process may be conducted so 
as to give the best results as to uniformity and effectiveness. It 
is to be remembered that burr dye, as its name mdicates, is of use 



54 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 47 

only in the coloring or covering of vegetable matter, so that 
a wool speck still must be removed by hand. If the wool speck 
would be affected by the dye, of course the color of the whole 
piece would be changed. 

Ingredients. The composition of the dye is of the first and 
utmost importance. The several ingredients and the rotation of 
adding them makes a great difference in the value and usefulness 
of the dye. In order to be sure that the dye has been properly 
prepared, take a piece of glass (a broken window-pane, for 
instance,) and dip it into the dye, and then hold it against the 
light. If the color is a rich claret, bright and clear, there is no 
doubt but that all the ingredients have been properly combined 
or boiled together. If, on the other hand, the color is a dirty 
black, verging on an equally dirty blue, lacking brightness and 
clearness, it is just as evident that the essential lequireraents for 
making a good speck dye have not been complied with. Uniform- 
ity in the making of the dye is of the greatest importance; for if 
one batch is boiled three hours and another only two, it is not to 
be supposed that the results are going to be alike. 

The ingredients entering into the making of the dye are, first 
the coloring matter, or extract of logwood ; next an acid, blue vit- 
riol ; and last an alkali, soda ash. In using the coloring matter it 
is best for this purpose to use an extract of logwood, which is for 
wool-dyeing purposes considered of inferior quality, but which for 
the purpose of making speck dye is better than the finer and 
highly oxidized grades. This is also true with the alkali. The 
crude product, soda ash, is much to be preferred to any of the 
more purified kinds. In fact, it is next to impossible to make a 
good dye with sal soda, pure alkali, or crystal carbonate of soda. 
These apparently lose in the purifying process something which is 
necessary for a good dye. This is also true of the finer strains of 
logwood. Why there should be a difference is immaterial, but 
the fact remains that the best results are obtained with the, infe- 
rior qualities. Liquid extract of logwood or its substitute, liquid 
extract of hemlock or hematine, make good speck dyes. The pro- 
portions are as follows : 2 parts of vitriol, 3 parts of soda ash, and 
4 parts of logwood. The acid and alkali are directly opposed to 
each other in their action ; but if the soda ash is combined with 



55 



48 WOOLEN AND WORSTED- FINISHING 



the coloring matter before the vitriol is added, the- brightness and 
effectiveness of the coloring matter is nearly destroyed. This 
accounts for the ill success of many attempts at making speck 
dyeing with the same material with which another person will 
produce the v-ery best dye possible. To obtain a dye which 
can be relied upon, it is of the first importance that the several 
ingredients be combined in such a manner as to retain the full 
force of all the coloring matter, upon which the coloring of the 
speck is dependent. This, as shown, is best done by first com- 
bining the logwood, or hematine, and blue vitriol by thoroughly 
boiling them for an hour, after all the vitriol is dissolved. 
Then the soda ash may be added, and when this has ceased to fer- 
ment, the whole should be boiled for three hours, and the result 
will be a dye which can be relied upon at all times, not alone to 
cover the speck in good shape, but also to give the goods the 
same shade, provided the same amount and strength is used. 

While there should be no shades traceable directly to the 
dye, it must not be forgotten that on low-grade goods the stock 
often contains considerable cotton ; and as this will attract as 
much of the dye as the vegetable specks it is intended to cover, 
the result will be that the shade of the goods is somewhat dark- 
ened ; but this is rather a benefit than otherwise, as it will give 
the cloth a fuller appearance. As long as the amount of dye put 
on the goods and the strength of the same is alike, the shades 
will come alike. The larger the amount of speck dye made at 
one time the better ; and in order to give an idea how to proceed, 
the following directions are given: 

Recipe. For 200 gallons of speck dye take 200 pounds 
liquid extract of logwood, and add to this 100 pounds of blue 
vitriol. Put enough water with this to fill tank about | full, and 
turn on the steam and bring to a boil. Then turn some of the 
steam off to reduce the boiling, and keep boiling till all of 
the vitriol is dissolved, and then continue for one hour. Turn 
off the steam and let the whole stand for about an hour; 
also add some cold water to cool it off somewhat, but not too 
much, for when the soda ash is added, that needs room for fer- 
mentation. Now take 150 pounds of soda ash, and add it to the 
solution in the tank. To do this, proceed carefully, and put in 



56 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 49 



only a little at a time, sliding it down easily on the side of the 
tank. When all has been added, let it lie for quite a while and 
ferment. 

It is best to commence to boil speck dye in the afternoon, so 
as to get the soda ash all in, and then let it stand till morning. 
Commence to stir the soda ash gently, and note how it rises ; if it 
comes up too fast, wait a little while longer. If it threatens to 
run over, add a little cold water, and it will slowly settle back. 
Avoid running over, for as soon as this happens, the best of the 
coloring matter will be wasted. When the dye can be stirred 
without threatening to run over, turn on the steam and bring to 
a boil gently, and as soon as it boils all danger is over, and it may 
be left to boil for three hours, and then the tank is filled up. 
The dye thus produced will stand at about 15° to 18° Baum^. 
This is reduced by the addition of water to the strength required 
for the goods. 

Application. When goods are to be speck dyed, they are 
put into the washer and sewn together m the same manner as for 
washing, and then the cold water is turned on, and the goods are 
thoroughly wetted. Let them run for a few minutes, and then 
shut off the water, leaving the gates open, and let the pieces 
run until they are thoroughly drained, when all the gates are 
securely closed to guard against leakage, and the speck dye is 
poured on the goods while in motion. Never put on the d3^e Avith 
the pieces standing still, for this may produce cloudy goods. 
The dye vdll take as soon as it comes in contact with the vege- 
table matter in the cloth; and if the goods are stationary, the best 
strength of the dye will be absorbed by that part on which the 
dye falls and remains for a while, but if the goods are moving, 
this is not the case, and the dye soon distributes itself all over 
them. Have the dye ready in small pails or tubs, so that it can 
be poured on the goods as quickly as possible. 

It is poor economy not to provide sufficient pails or tubs 
for this purpose ; for if the washer tender has only one or two 
pails in which to prepare and fetch the dye, the results are also 
likely to be uneven. Each piece requires about two pailfuls of 
dye, and a strength sufficient to cover the speck, which in most 
cases can be well done if the dye is 5° in strength. The dye, as 



57 



50 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

indicated before, is made about 15° or 18°, and this is chiefly 
done for the purpose of avoiding the frequent making of the dye, 
and also to have the dye cold when used, for the addition of cold 
water in reducing its strength to the required point will give this 
result. The least warmth in either dye or goods will affect the 
color of the wool, thus practically spoiling the goods. After the 
dye has been applied the pieces should run about twenty minutes, 
to make sure that the speck has taken all it will hold ; then open 
•the gates, turn on the cold water, rinse for about twenty-five min- 
utes, and take out. 

Low=grade Qoods. It often happens on very low-grade goods, 
as for instance satinets, that in order to save time the speck dyeing 
is done in the fulling mill. While this manner of doing the work 
is not at all satisfactory on any other class of goods, it may be em- 
ployed with some success on satinets, and perhaps on some other 
very low-grade goods. It is not always that the best interest of 
the goods under treatment is considered, for on the lower grades 
very often time is of more consequence than any other thing ; and 
when this is the case, most generally speck dyeing in the mill is 
resorted to. 

In places of this kind the appointment and means in the finish- 
ing room are generally very crude, and it is well to know how 
to go to work in such instances. In many cases the dje is made 
in a barrel, and should be very strong and of good coloring quality. 
Recipe. For a barrel of 50 gallons take 15 pounds liquid 
extract of logwood, or hematine, and 10 pounds of blue vitriol; 
dissolve with sufficient water to fill barrel l full; when all is dis- 
solved add 50 pounds of soda ash, observing the directions previ- 
ously given. When done this will give about 24 degrees strength, 
and will answer admirably for the purpose it is intended. 

Application. Take 2 quarts of this dye and pour it slowly 
on the goods when they have begun to shrink, being sure that the 
pieces are somewhat dry at this stage. At any rate do not add the 
dye until convinced that the grease has become pretty well loos- 
ened, and that after the dye has been added the goods are not too 
wet. This is all that can with profit be said of this process ; the 
danger is always present that the goods will be cloudy, by reason 
of their getting warm in the fulling mill. 



68 




IMPROVED ROTARY CLOTH WASHER 

Rodney Hunt Machine Co. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 51 

Speck dye made after the manner given will not affect wool 
as long as it and the goods remain cold; but when heat is a factor 
in connection with it there is no telling what the result will be. 

Fuller's Earth. On all fine goods, whether they are speck 
dyed or not, it is of great benefit to use fuller's earth after wash- 
ing and also after speck dyeing. This has a tendency to purify 
the pieces of any remaining trace of soap, and it also imparts a 
soft feeling which it is impossible to obtain in any other way. In 
order to get the best results it is necessary to have a well-refined 
earth, free from impurities ; with it the result will be beneficial 
if the matter is not overdone, in which case the result will be the 
reverse. To 50 gallons, 2 pailfuls of the earth is ample, and it 
will be found that the water will not hold more in solution with- 
out continual stirring. There will be a sediment with even this 
amount of earth, but not enough to do harm. When earth is used 
let it be put on the goods after they are thoroughly rinsed and 
drained, so that all the surplus water is out of them, then shut 
all the gates and give each piece two pailfuls of solution, as 
stated above. This should be well stirred before using, so as to 
get all the earth well mixed ; then apply and let the pieces run 
for 15 minutes and rinse 10 minutes, after which the goods may 
be taken out and passed to the next process. 

On face goods the bath of fuller's earth should not be omitted, 
both at the first washing and after speck dyeing. If such goods 
are intended for piece dyeing give them a bath of earth before 
sending them to the dye-house and after they are gigged, and the 
results will be astonishing. As the use of fuller's earth is not 
universal, it will be in some instances hard to convince parties of 
the benefit derived from .its use, but invariably a continued use 
of it will show this to be a fact. 

Crocking. It sometimes happens on low-grade goods that 
after they are all finislied they will smut, or crock; that is, if the 
goods are handled the hands will become soiled, and consequently 
any lighter shade goods will be dirtied by coming in contact with 
them. This is often due to an imperfect making of the speck dye, 
and will not result if directions as to the making are carefully ob- 
served. In other cases it is due to an imperfectly colored stock, 
and then shows itself unpleasantly if the goods are of a fancy 



59 



52 WOOLEN" AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



nature as to colors, by having the lighter colors dulled and the 
whole piece assume a dull and dirty look. If this is the case, it 
may be overcome by giving the goods a salt bath after they are 
washed and before taking them from the washer. Generally 
goods having a percentage of colored carded cotton in their 
make-up are affected in this way. 

Make a brine such as is used for dyeing purposes generally, 
about 50 or 75 pounds of coarse salt to 50 gallons of water; dis- 
solve well, and give each piece 1| or 2 pailfuls after shutting all 
the sfates ; let them run in this for 10 or 15 minutes and then take 
them out. Do not rinse the pieces. 

SINGEING. 

The Singeing Process, while not in actual rotation follow- 
ing the preceding processes, is in some instances employed on goods 
in the wet state, though it usually takes place directly after the 
goods are burled and mended. This process is simple in its 
operation, and is used to remove all fibers from the face of the 
cloth. It is therefore of use only on such classes of goods as are 
made in the loom and do not need feltinsf or shrinking-. This 
includes worsteds for men's wear, except worsted cheviots, and all 
kinds of clear finished worsted dress goods for ladies' wear. There 
are two kinds of singeing practiced; one is the gas singeing and 
the other the plate singeing. The former is used on fabrics which 
are of a more open nature, such as clays and serges, while the latter 
is used chiefly on whipcords and i)oplins. 

When gas is used for singeing, it is combined with air so as 
to give a perfect combustion and a clear blue flame. The pres- 
sure of the air also forces the flame into every crevice of the 
goods, and removes all loose fibers completely. 

On the plate singeing hollow copperplates or retorts are used, 
which are heated to a red heat by means of gas or oil, and are kept 
at uniform heat during the process. Gas singeing is the more eco- 
nomical of the two processes, inasmuch as the single turning on of 
the gas and air and their lighting is all that is necessary to start, 
but on plate singeing it is quite a while before the plates become 
hot enough to go ahead. Then, also, as soon as the pieces are 
run the gas and air is turned off, and there is no further ex- 



60 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



53 



pense on this score, while on plate singeing the flame has to be 
kept up so as to be ready for the next batch. Therefore it is 
seldom that plate singeing is used in any but the larger establish- 
ments. 

Qas Singeing. The machines for gas singeing are now built 
upon a much different principle than they were some yeais ago, 
and are no doubt designed to do more work in a given time; 
bnt after all, tlie old style is still the best for all practical pur- 




Fig. 7. Singeing Machine. 

poses. The constant demand for machines to give more pro- 
duction has led builders to lose sight of some of the essential 
points of a good machine ; and while these new machines in many 
instances are called improved, it would be more fitting to call 
them more complicated, for all attempts at simplicity, which is so 
essential in a good machine, are thrown aside. 

The illustration at Fig. 8 represents a singeing machine of 



61 



54 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



the better kind, and one which is readily understood and operated. 
The goods are laid out on trucks in even folds, and as much as 
possible without wrinkles. The ends being laid out are sewn 
together, so that the seam will be on the back. This is necessary 
in order to prevent the loose threads usually found at the 
ends from catching fire, which if not noticed is likely to cause 
damage. In the diagram at Fig. 9 the traveling of the cloth is 
shown. Starting from the truck M the cloth goes to and over roll 
N, then to and under A, thence to and under B, to and over C, 
then to and under D, from there to E, mider F and over G, to and 
between H and I, and to and between J and K ; then down through 




Fig. 8. Gas Singeing Machine. 

the folder to the truck. The rolls C and E are hollow brass tubes, 
and on these the flame acts ; consequently a stream of water is 
constantly maintained through them to keep them cool. By re- 
ferring to the illustration of the machine it will be seen that these 
rolls are piped. 

The little donkey engine, shown at Fig 8, furnishes the req- 
uisite power, and also drives the fan in front of the tank which 
forces the air into the tank for use with the gas. This tank is 
usually supplied with a safety valve. A long apron is used on 
the machine, to save the trouble of threading for every batch. 

When the goods are started and the apron is on the truck, it 



62 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



55 



is separated from the piece and sewn on to tlie other end of the 
goods remaining on the truck M ; thus when the batch is run and 
the machine stopped, it is threaded ready for the next batch. If 
everything is ready for a start, the gas and air are turned on and 
the flame lit ; and here care must be used to so combine the gas 
and air that a clear blue flame will be the result. If this is not 
obtained, the goods will be smutted by the smoke of the burning 
gas, and the singeing will not be thorough, for the air is required 
to drive the flames into the crevices of the cloth, besides giving 
a perfect combustion. 

The engine is then started, and when the desired speed is 




Fig. 9. Cross-section of a Gas Singeing Machine. 

ootained the machine is set in motion. As soon as the apron has 
])assed the lower roll B the flame is put on the goods by turning 
it towards the roll B, and after the cloth has passed B the flame 
is put on at E, and the process is in operation. After the goods 
begin to fold on the rear truck L they should be examined at once 
to see if the singeing is as thorough as it should be, and if not, 
the speed must be reduced until the singeing is thoroughly done. 
The process is very simple, but effective. 

Plate Singeing. The diagram, Fig. 10, will give an idea of 
singeing as performed by means of plates. The retorts A and B 
are hollow, of the shape shown, and are of the maximum length 



63 



56 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



to correspond with the width of the widest goods to be treated. 
A flame of gas or fuel oil is forced into tliese retorts, and 
they are thus heated to a red heat. The cloth travels from 
the truck to and over roll C, to and under O" and E", up and 
over F", down and under G, to and under H, up and over I and 
J, and then down and through the folder K, and is then folded 
off on a truck or in boxes. 

On men's wear goods the plate singeing process is seldom 
used, for gas singeing is generally found more convenient and 
easier to install. On ladies' dress goods, however, it is frequently 
used, as these goods are usually finished in large establishments. 
This is also due to the fact that dress goods are often composed 




Fig. 10. Ci'oss-sectioD of Plate Singeing Machine. 

partly of cotton, and on them plate singeing is found to" be of 
more advantage, as it imparts a better feeling to goods contain- 
ing this fiber. Outside of this fact, however, the gas singeing 
machine, as shown in the illustration, is adaptable to any and all 
kinds of goods where singeing is of benefit. 

CRABBING. 
Theory. The ci'abbing machine, which comes next under 
consideration, is used to impart to the goods a certain stability, 
and to set the weave in such a manner that in the following proc- 
esses it will not be obliterated. It is also of great benefit to 
worsted goods where the listing has a tendency to curl, and it sets 
it in snch a way that the following process will have no ill effects 
upon it. The crab is used more on dress goods than it is on 



64 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



57 



men's wear, and on them it is rarely used except on some kinds 
of worsteds. For men's wear the steam lustering process is gen- 
erally practiced, and will be thoroughly described later. 




The accompanying illustration, Fig. 11, may be described as 
follows : The process consists of two operations, which may, 
however, be carried on . at the same time. The first is the loosen- 
ing process, and the second the setting process. The goods are 



65 



58 



WOOLEN" AND WORSTED FINIS HmG. 







« 



m 
fe 



66 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 59 

first run on the cylinder under a moderate pressure of the top 
roll. They are kept tight and free from wrinkles, and pass over 
the several rolls as indicated. The trough, or bowl, as it is 
termed, in which the cylinder is immersed, is filled with hot water 
at about 150° F., and after the goods are in the bowl they are 
allowed to rotate in this hot water for about twenty minutes, 
and are then wound off on wooden rolls and stood on end after 
being wrapped. All the sizing which is in them will in this way 
become well loosened, and when they have thus stood for an hour 
or two, during which time they are turned once end for end, they 
are taken to the machine again and wound on the cylinder once 
more with somewhat increased pressure on the top roll. At this 
second treatment the water is kept boiling. 

This is the setting process, and in order to be effective the 
temperature must be kept at a good boil, for if it is not, the 
effects of the following processes will undo what has been accom- 
plished here. The I'ule is that the temperature during this process 
should be as high as that of any other subsequent process through 
which the goods pass, and as the coloring is iu this respect the 
hardest on the goods, and they are here subjected to boiling, it 
follows that the setting process must also be performed with boil- 
ing water. Twenty to twenty-five minutes are required to set 
the goods properly. They are then taken off, being ready for the 
next process, which is usually the scouring, and of which due 
mention will be made in the treatment of dress goods. 

The pressure required on the goods to give the desired finish 
is one of the things which is of most importance, but cannot be 
explained properly, as this can only be acquired by actual experi- 
ence ; however, it should be remembered that the higher the pres- 
sure the higher the finish will be, but the capacity of the goods 
mu&t be taken into consideration. 

The two processes just described, that of singeing and crab- 
bing, do not exactly follow the other processes described, but are 
inserted here as belonging to the wet finishing. 

STRETCHING AND EXTRACTING. 

Stretching and Rolling. After the goods have passed through 
the washing they are naturally in a ropy form, and will have to be 



67 



GO WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

opened out and nicely folded on trucks, after which they are taken 
to the stretching and rolling machines, an illustration of which 
is shown at Fig. 12. It is not necessary, or rather should not 
be, to stretch them in length, but they must be stretched in width. 
This is not performed on account of the width, unless the goods 
come narrow, but to fiee them from wrinkles sustained by their 
pa:ssage in the washer in the form of a rope, through both warm 
and cold water ; on highly finished goods these wrinkles are 
likely to show when the pieces are finished. All classes of cloths 
are not treated in this way, but on goods that need gigging it 
must not be omitted. 

The machines are supplied with two stretch rolls, between 
which are perforated pipes to introduce steam to the goods, if 
necessary. The pieces are strung over and under the bars, and 
tlien pass to the first, stretch roll ; from this to the second roll, 
and they are then wound on a wooden roll placed upon a drum and 
held down by the side arms. The weights attached to the ends 
of these arms cause the cloth to be wound tightly and smoothly. 
When the piece is on the roll it is taken off, and an empty roll is 
put in its }ilace for the next piece. The rolls with the cloth upon 
them may be stood on end until they are needed, or tliey may 
be laid down flat on skids ; if left that way over night, they will be 
found in the best conditi(jn for either the gig or napper. 

If, however, it should be nece-ssary to use the goods at once, 
they should be taken to the squeeze rolls. These are simply two 
heavy iron rolls about a foot in diameter, one above the other, and 
from which greater pressure may be obtained by means of screws 
ap[)lied to the top roll. These rolls are neatly wound with about 
seven or eight thicknesses of cotton cloth, which are tightly wound 
around each roll without any wrinkles or creases, in order not to 
leave marks on the goods. The cloth before entering the«rolls 
passes over a stretch roll of regulation make, and thence through 
the rolls in a smooth and even manner to the other end, where a 
folding attachment folds off the piece in a nice even pile. This 
acts as a huge wringer, except that the goods pass through 
smoothly and at the full width. 

Extracting and Squeezing. If one of these machines is not 
at hand, the goods may be pla.ced in the "• Hydro-extractor " and 



68 



WOOLEN" AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



61 



about half the water extracted (see Fig. 13). They may then be 
put on the rolling and stretching machine, after which they can 
go to the gig at once. 

The "Hydro-extractor," as it is termed, or, more commonly 
speaking, the water-extracting machine, is composed of a wire 
basket, through the center of which runs a shaft. This shaft re- 
volves in a journal on the bottom, called a " step," and is also 




Fig. 13. Hydro-extractor. 

firndy held by another journal on top. Below the top journal is 
a pulley firmly fastened to this shaft, and wlien a belt is placed 
around this and power applied, the basket rotates on the shaft and 
is driven at a very high speed, about 1,500 to 2,000 revolutions 
per minute. There is thus created enough centrifugal force to 



69 



62 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

throw the water out of the goods and through the apertures in the 
basket to the outside. The basket is set in a cast-iron box on a 
solid foundation, and the water thus finds its way to the bottom 
and is drawn off. 

The goods which have been rolled up and which are to stand 
on end, instead of lying flat, should be turned at least once in six 
hours, or else they will be more moist on one side than on the other. 

GIQQINQ AND NAPPING. 

Gigging. The next step in the process of finishing is the 
gigging. This process consists of the combing out of the fibers 
on the surface of the goods. The felting together of all the 
fibers enhances the value and strength of the cloth, and those 
which lie on the face of the goods are straightened out, either to 
be left on as part of the finish or else to be removed by the shear. 
This shows that the manner of doing this part of the work has an 
important bearing upon the ultimate finish ; in fact, the gigging is 
what produces the finish. The underlying principles of the proc- 
ess remain the same, no matter what the finish may be. The 
process of gigging, therefore, admits of an endless variety of 
methods, all based upon the same principle, — that of raising the 
felted fibers on the face of the goods and combing them out, so as 
to have them all lie in one direction. 

" Teasels," the dried flower heads of a plant of that name, 
through cultivation are brought to a high state of perfection, and 
are largely used for this work. For gigging, the teasels have to 
be mounted in flats, or slats, as they are severally termed, which 
are simply wooden or iron frames, into which the teasels are 
crowded very tightly and evenly. 

Flats. The illustration at Fig. 14 gives an idea of the frame. 
It will be seen that this is divided into four sections by means of 
rods passing through the lower and upper bars, and which hold 
these bars apart and in their place. The projections of the rods 
at both top and bottom fit into slots on the cylinder of the machine 
on which they are used, and thus hold the frame in its place on 
the cylinder. On wooden flats the connecting rods are screwed 
to the bars at top and bottom. With iron flats the top bar is of 
one piece, curved so as to hold the top of the teasel, while the 



71) 



WOOLEN" AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



63 



bottom is made of two pieces, to admit of the stem of the teasel 
being put through it and»cut off evenly below. The top bar of 
the wooden flat as well as the bottom one is hollowed on the 
inside to hold the teasel more firmly ; the stems of these should be 
cut off before mounting them. The iron flats are by all means 
to be preferred, as it is easier to mount the teasels in them, and 
when mounted they will hold them better than the wooden 
flats. 

Teasel Mounting. There are two ways of mounting the 
teasels in the flats, one of which is to either moisten the teasels 
slightly or to steam them before mounting ; the other is to use 
them in the dry state. The former enables the operator to handle 
the teasels easier; but while it makes the mounting easier it causes 
more work afterward, for they have to be thoroughl}^ dried again 
before using on the machine. More teasels are made useless by 
moisture than by wear, and therefore this method is not to be 



B 



Fig. 14. Teasel Flat or Frame. 



recommended. Still it is practiced in many places, though a 
source of much expense. It is harder to mount the teasels in the 
dry state ; but by so doing tlie whole usefulness is retained, and 
the labor of drying the flats can be saved at this point. 

In mounting teasels it is essential to have a correct eye for 
size, otherwise valuable time is lost by not selecting the correct 
size quickly. If the teasels are picked up indiscriminately as to 
size and thus set, the flat will create bad work and leave the goods 
streaky, for the larger teasels will go much deeper than the smaller 
ones. The teasels must be crowded in as tightly as it is possible 
to get them, for in using on the machines there is quite a strain 
on them, and if not crowded in tightly they will fly out, leaving 
holes in the flat without teasels. 

Many times it is found that, to save money, small teasels 
termed buttons are furnished, which perform the work very imper- 
fectly. This practice is what may be termed mistaken economy, 



71 



64 WOOLEN" AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

for only those teasels should be mounted in the flat which will do 
the work the flat is intended to do. '^^le most economical way 
is to buy teasels ranging from 11 to 2 inches in length. These 
graded teasels cost a little more, but are the cheapest in the 
end ; they will make a better and evener flat, and each teasel 
will perform its intended work; there will be less trouble from 
streaks, and all the teasels in the box may be used up, none being 
thrown away. Using buttons amounts to nothing less than throw- 
ing away good money on poor material. It must be remembered 
that these small teasels are not as well matured as full-grown ones, 
and are, therefore, soft, open, and useless for all practical purposes 
except to hold in place the teasels which do the work. 

Only a short time ago it was considered that nothing but the 
imported teasels were fit to use, and many still cling to that notion ; 
but New York State teasels have been grown to such perfection 
that it is useless to import the others. Of late yeai's a teasel 
grown in Oregon is finding much favor for gigging, and bids 
fair to supplant the New York teasel, as it is in all respects very 
serviceable and uniform. Tlie Oregon teasel is of finer grain than 
any other grown in this country, and on fine work cannot be sur- 
passed. 

LJp-and=down Gig. The machine on which the teasel flats are 
to be used comes next under consideration. The oldest machine 
used for tliis purpose is the up-and-down gig; next to that comes 
the rotary gig, and finally the double-cylinder rotary gig; all of 
which may be found in actual use at the various woolen mills in 
the country. Progressive managers have gone from one stage 
to another as the improvements were made, and many to-day 
do not operate teasel gigs, but use the latest improved napping 
machines. As stated, any of the machines mentioned may be 
encountered in the luills, and therefore it is necessary to know 
how to proceed on any one of them, for it is not often that the 
machines of one's choice are furnished. 

With the old up-and-down gig, the illustration at Fig. 15 
gives a fair idea of its operation. It will be seen that the cloth 
winds around drums, either at the top or bottom, and when wind- 
ing on one drum it leaves the other. The operating mechanism is 
an upright shaft, which, when turned, engages one gear and at the 



72 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



65 



same time releases the other. When it is required to stop the 
cloth the handle is turned to the center, thus releasing both gears. 
To get a good idea of the running of this machine, it is 
necessaiy to follow a piece through the operation. Standing in 
front of the gig the cylinder turns toward the operator with a 




^0-e\ 






-•V 






hi 









Fig. 15. Old Up-and-down Gig. 

downward motion, and upon examination it is found that on the 
cylinder are either 24 or 28 places fitted to receive the flats, into 
which the teasels have been mounted, as before explained. The 
cylinder is provided with the flats, and care must be taken to have 
them securely placed in their respective slots. If this care is 



73 



66 WOOLEN AND WORSTED ElNrSIIlNa. 

not observed, one or more of the flats may fly out, doing damage 
to both cloth and machine, and also perhaps to the operator. 

When this has been carefully seen to, the piece is either sewn 
or wired to the apron of the top roller or drum, and is then wound 
evenly on this roll by starting the machine and engaging the upper 
gear by turning the handle outward. When the end comes, stop 
the top roll by turning the handle to the center, and tlien sew or 
wire the end of the cloth to the apron of the lower roll. By turn- 
ing the handle inward the bottom roll will revolve and the cloth 
wind around it, taking it from the top roll and passing in front of 
the cylinder. Below the top roll are found two projecting arms, 
into which a roll is fitted, and over which the cloth passes before 
going on the top roll. These arms are supplied with a sliding 
arm running on gear teeth, and which can be slid in or out, thus 
bringing the roll over which the cloth has to pass, either closer 
to the cylinder or farther away from it, and of course the cloth 
with it. Just above the bottom roll are found two similar arms 
holding a roll, and over which the cloth passes before going on 
the roll; but this carrier roll is stationary. This provides the 
means of bringing the clotli into contact with the cylinder or 
taking it away from it. As soon as the cloth commences to travel 
to the lower roll it is brought slightly in contact with the cylinder 
by means of the sliding roll mentioned; but this contact must be 
very light at first. After the piece is all on the lowei" roll the 
handle is reversed and it begins to go upward onto the top roll. 
Then the cloth may be brought into a closer contact with the 
cylinder, and after this it is brought a little closer at every run. 

The passage of the cloth from the top to the bottom roll is 
called a " run," and by it is measured the amount of work to be 
given ; thus the piece at this stage is given six runs ; that is, it 
travels from top to bottom and back to the top again six times. 
When this has been accomplished the machine is stopped, the cloth 
separated from the lower apron and nicely folded on a truck by 
pulling it from the top roll until the apron comes; this is also 
separated from the cloth. The piece is now turned upside down 
and the truck turned also, so that the face of the goods is 
towards the machines. By this time it will be found that the 
cylinder has gathered flocks in greater or smaller quantity. If 



74 




UP-AND-DOWN TWO-CONTACT GIG WITH ROLLING ATTACHMENT, CYLINDER VIBRATOR, ON] 
CONTACT ATTACHMENT AND SPRINKLER PIPE 

Parks & Woolson Machine Co. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 67 

the goods are not too wet when going to the gig the teasels should 
be dry enough for another six runs ; but before putting the cloth 
on again a hand card, such as is used in the card-room for strip- 
ping, is used for removing the flocks from the teasels. In large 
establishments this is done by the use of a revolving brush, after 
which the flats are turned so that a fresh and dry side is presented 
again for the work. 

Before proceeding further with the illustration, it is necessary 
to state that in the gigging of all kinds of cloths the process is 
always begun with the poorest kind of flats obtainable ; that is, 
those which are shortly to be rejected as unfit for further use. 
These are called "poor work," while new flats are called "sharp 
work." When starting a piece be sure that the cylinder is clothed 
with poor work, for if sharper work is used it will only be to the 
detriment of the goods as well as of the teasels. It must be remem- 
bered that the fibers are all felted together, and anything that will 
take hold too hard will tear and break them, and will also break 
off the points of the teasels which are needed to do the combing 
out. Consequently some system should be employed to grade the 
different flats so as to proceed with the work gradually, and not 
wear the cloth or teasels unduly. 

The cylinder is often divided into several subdivisions, ccn- 
taining an equal number of flats in each. For instance, a cylinder 
containing 24 flats may be divided into 4 or 6 equal divisions of 
6 or 4 flats each. On goods that are gigged for a clear finish and 
which, are usually not as heavily felted as face goods, the latter 
division is the most acceptable, while on heavily felted cloths it is 
better to make 4 divisions of 6 each. The flats are then graded 
according to tiie amount of work they have already performed ; 
the last is termed poor work, the next in order is styled No. 1, 
then No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4, with the remaining class being called 
fresh, new, or sharp work. Thus it will be seen that it is an easy 
matter to so instruct the operator that the gigging may go on 
without the constant presence of the overseer. This should be 
properly understood, for without a system and the proper grading 
of the flats it is next to impossible to gig two pieces alike. Soine 
teasels wear out faster than others, and therefore a careful watch 



lb 



68 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

should be kept on the different grades to keep them up to the 
standard. 

When the cylinders have been filled with poor work and the 
piece has received 6 runs one way, it is run on the top roll again 
after it has been turned as stated. This is termed "reversing," 
and when the teasels strike the cloth thus, the fibers before raised 
will be turned the other way. The piece is again given 6 runs 
and is again taken off and reversed, bringiug it this time as it was 
at first. For this illustration a piece of cassimere with a clear fin- 
ish is used, and for that reason the cylinder is divided into 6 sec- 
tions of 4 flats, each, thus makiug 4 grades of flats beside the poor 
and new work. Now take out one of the old flats and put in its 
place one of No. 1 grade, count off 5 flats and remove the sixth 
and replace with another of No. 1, keeping on this until 4 flats of 
No. 1 have been placed in the cylinder. Put the cloth on again 
and give 6 runs ; reverse and give 6 more, after wliich the cloth is 
again reversed, and this time 4 flats of No. 2 grade are placed in 
the cylinder next to the No. I's last put in. Repeat the operation 
as before; wlien the last grade or new work is put in, give the 
cloth 12 runs one way, instead of reversing after 6 runs. 

Tlie cloth is then carefuHy examined to see if all the fibers 
have been lifted and the thread is round and clear. To do this 
run the blade of a penknife under the nap to lift it up, when it 
will be readily seen if the threads are clean and round or if fibers 
remain untouched. If all is clear, as it should be, the goods are 
taken off and sent to be speck-dyed, and if not, give them more 
runs with the sharp work until well cleared. At several stages of 
tlie process examine the goods to see if they are clear enough, for 
if more runs are necessary they should be given before the sharp- 
est work is introduced, so that the strength of the goods will not 
be injured. Always endeavor to keep the whole strength of the 
goods intact; nothing is worse than tender cloth. 

In the examination to see if the gigging is done properly, it 
is useless to pull the nap and shave it off with a knife, for there 
is nothing to prevent the taking off of fibers which have not been 
properly raised. Although the place examined may look well 
enough, the piece often fails to clear up properly when sheared, 
making it necessary to either scrape it very hard on the shear or 



76 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



69 



else give it an additional dry gigging. There is no excuse for 
this, and it can be easily avoided by testing in the manner pre- 
viously described. 

While the above is given to show how the gigging is per- 
formed on the old up-and-down gig, it is not intended as a sure 
and infallible guide ; for, as already stated, to perform the operation 
successfully no hard and fast rules can be laid down. Each man 




Fig. 16. Eotary Gig. 

should evolve his own rules and system with especial reference to 
the goods in hand, and even after he has done this he will often 
find that it is necessary to depart from them to better some con- 
ditions that have not before arisen. 

The Rotary Gig is the next machine for consideration. A 
glance at the illustration will show the difference between this 
and the up-and-down gig. 

Fig. 16 shows this machine with two pieces of narrow goods 



TT 



70 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

all strung and ready for gigging. On the left side are the driving 
pulleys. They consist of two loose pulleys and one tight pulley 
in the center. One of the loose pulleys is supplied with a straight 
belt while the other loose pulley has a crossed belt. By this it 
will be seen that the cylinder can be driven in either direction by 
using either one or the other belt. By referring to Fig. 17 the 
cloth is shown to be threaded as follows : Over idler roll, A, in 
front of cloth roll, B, and under same ; then up and over stretch 
roll, C, and back of bar, D ; thence up and over application roll, E, 
and to and over roll, F ; then down and over application roll, G, to 
bar, H, over stretch roll, I, to and around cloth roll, J, and over idler 
roll, L, and into the scray. The cloth can be made to travel in either 
direction also by raising or lowering lever, K, thus engaging either 
one or the other train of gears. When running the machine have 
the cloth travel in the opposite direction from the cylinder. Upon 
iianging the direction of cloth and cylinder all of the flats must 
be reversed. 

The cylinder of these machines is usually fitted for 24 flats, 
and at the start it should be filled with poor work, as on the 
first machine. The cloth is then passed through the machine in 
the manner indicated in Fig. 16, after which the two ends are 
nicely sewn together. This is preferably done with the sewing 
machine, although a fair seam can be made by hand. It should 
be strong and durable, and made in such a manner that the stitches 
lie on the back of the goods, in order to reduce the wear occasioned 
by the teasels as much as possible. All seams should be on the 
back of the number of pieces placed on the machine. These ma- 
chines have a capacity of two or more pieces. This of course is 
regulated by their length as well as by their general bulkiness. 
Four pieces of light weight goods can easily be accommodated. 

After making sure that the flats are put in properly, the ma- 
chine is started with the straight belt. By examining the teasels 
in the flats, it will be found that if- they are rubbed from the 
top toward the stem, little resistance is met with, but as soon as 
they are rubbed from the stem toward the top, the several teasel 
points are called into action and fasten themselves into the hand. 
So when standing in front of the gig, that is, on the side where 
the cylinder turns toward you, make sure that the teasels in all the 



78 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



71 



flats have the stems down and tops up. If this is not observed 
the gigging will be of no value, for the teasels will slide over the 
cloth without raising the fibers. 

After the cylinder is in motion, start the cloth and bring it 
gradually in contact with the cylinder. Unlike the other machine, 
one run is the traveling of the cloth once around the machine, so 
that if more than one piece is put on, careful account of the seams 



z;;^;^ 




Fig. 17. Sectional View of Rotary Gig. 

must be kept. To accomplish this the first seam is usually marked 
in such a way as to be easily distinguished from the others. Con- 
sequently in order to give the pieces the same amount of work as 
on the up-and-down gig, it would seem that the pieces should be 
run 12 times around the machine, but on account of the increase 
in the number of contacts this is not the case. The least number 
of contacts on these gigs is two, and the greatest, four ; this m ust 



79 



72 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

of course be taken into account when gigging. On a two-contact 
machine the same number of runs will be required as on the other 
machine, but it is done in half the time. 

When the goods have received this treatment, stop the ma- 
chine and loosen up the cloth so that it may be laid on one side ; 
then take out the flats one after another, and turn them upside 
down, so that the teasels will lie in the opposite position from the 
one they occupied during the first run. Next straighten out the 
cloth and start the machine with the crossed belt, which will drive 
the cylinder in the opposite direction. When the cloth is started 
it also travels in the opposite direction. This is the reversing 
process as performed on the other machine. It will be noticed that 
the cloth is not taken off the gig, nor is it turned and put on the 
machine again, all of which is a distinct saving of time and labor, 
beside the increase in contacts, which still more reduces the time 
required to perform the gigging. 

In proceeding with the gigging on this machine the same 
practice is observed as to the increase in the efficiency of each 
succeeding set of teasels. In fact the whole treatment is the 
same, but the process is shortened by the time saved in taking the 
goods off and putting them on the machine again, and also in that 
more than one piece can be treated at the same time. The prin- 
ciple of the gradual increase of the sharpness of the work, and 
also the bringing of the goods into contact with the cylinder, 
remains the same, regardless of the kind of teasel gig machine 
which is used. 

Many styles of these single rotary gigs are in use. The prin- 
ciples are the same in all of them, the difference between them 
being simply some minor details which have no actual bearing 
upon the process. 

Double Cylinder Rotary Gig. This machine differs materi- 
ally from each of the preceding gigs, and looks more complicated 
than it really is. (See Fig. 18.) In threading the machine the 
goods are put in the scray at the back or left side, and pass over the 
square roll found at the bottom right-hand side. This square 
roll lifts the cloth from the bottom of the scray, thus aiding the 
driving part and lessening the strain on the cloth, thereby keeping 
the tension more luiiform. From there the cloth passes under the 



80 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



73 



roll at the right corner, and over and under or back of the other 
roll and bar, which is set into a frame swinging on the axis or the 
lower roll. The bar is corrugated, and aids in taking out wrinkles. 
From there the pieces pass up and over an idler roll, and thence 
around the cloth roll, which is actuated by the chain from the 
back roll, thence up and over stretch roll, F, down and back of a 
brass-covered bar, and thence to the application rolls, d. There 
are four application rolls for each cylinder actuated by a worm 



■'^'^''^r^"'^' 




Fig. 18. Sectional View of Double Cylinder Eotary Gig. 

and. gear. The cloth passes over the first and under the second 
application roll, and thence to the third and fourth. It then passes 
upward and back of another brass-covered bar, and up to the middle 
cloth roll, which is also a stretch roll. By this it will be seen that 
the cloth has four contacts with the cylinder, B, and the flats 
which are fastened upon the arms of B at C. The cloth travels' 
the same way substantially, until it passes the last brass-covered 
bar, and then goes to the back cloth roll. By referring to Fig. 
19 which presents the other side of the machine, the driving gears 
of this back cloth roll are seen at the upper right hand. After 
the cloth passes around the back roll it is taken by a smaller roll 



81 



74 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

immediately below, and goes from there over another small roll 
and thence into the so ray. 

This right-end view shows plainly tlie means by which 
the cylinder is actuated, and the way in which the gear of the 
front cylinder is moved by the screw seen near the axis of the 
gear. As shown by the illustration, two cylinders instead of one 
perform the work on this machine. Each of these cylinders, being 
somewhat smaller than those of the other machines, holds 18 fiats. 
The cylinders revolve in the same direction, or in opposite direc- 
tions, at the will of the operator, so that the work of straight and. 
reverse gigging may be carried on at the same time. The rear 
cylinder is the one to which the power is communicated by the 
belt, therefore this will always run in the same direction; but the 
front cylinder is operated by gears from the rear cylinder, thus 
making it run in the opposite direction from the rear one. The 
gear on the front cylinder is movable, and can be disengaged from 
the other by sliding it out on the shaft. This is done by means of 
a screw. If the front cylinder gear is disengaged from the rear 
one, the front cylinder will stand still ; but if a gear which is 
placed lower down and which has a wide face, engages the gears 
of both cylinders, the cylinders themselves will run in the same 
direction. 

A double-cylinder gig, so far as putting in the flats is con- 
cerned, is treated as two gigs. The flats of the rear cylinder are 
put in from the back, while those of the other are put in from 
the front, the cylinders in each case turning toward tlie operator. 
Having only 18 flats on each cylinder, a division of 6 sections 
makes the number of fiats in each section too small ; therefore 
the cylinders are divided into 3 sections of 6 flats each. As 
this gives only three grades of teasels it is customary to treat the 
•two cylinders as one in this respect and have 6 sections of 6 flats, 
each making six grades as before. They can also be divided into 
2 sections of 9 flats each, making for both cylinders 4 sections, 
with 4 grades of teasels. The latter plan is most frequently 
adopted, and therefore will be used in the following example. 

Four pieces form a string on this machine on account of the 
space below being large enough to accommodate four pieces without 
crowding. The cylinders are examined to see that both contain 



82 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



75 



old or poor work. The pieces are tlien run on, after which the 
ends are nicely sewn together, thus forming one endless string. 
The machine is now started with only the rear cylinder and the 
goods are given two runs. The cloth is brought in contact with 
the cylinder lightly by the mechanism supplied for this purpose, 
and when the machine is stopped at any time the cloth is removed 
from contact so that in starting again it may not catch. This pre- 
caution is not generally observed, and often results in damaged 
goods. After giving the pieces two runs with th.e rear cylinder 




Fig. 19. Elevation of Double Cylinder Eotary Gig. 

only, the machine is stopped, and the front cylinder run in to en- 
gage the gears of the rear cylinder. Then start the gig again, 
and this time have both cylinders in action. Proceed to draw the 
cloth toward the cylinders gradually, so as not to bring it in con- 
tact too hard. Give the goods 4 runs ; then stop, clean the flats, 
and turn them over to present the other side for the work and 
give 4 more runs. When this has been accomplished, take out 9 
flats, or every other one from the rear cylinder, and replace with 
No. I's ; also take out 9 flats in the same manner fi*om front 
cylinder and replace with No. 2's. Now give 4 runs, clean, turn 



83 



76 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

the flats, and give 4 runs more. The front cylinder is taken off the 
goocTs after this, and the remaining 9 old flats are taken from 
the rear cylinder and replaced with No. o's, or new work. Give 
the pieces 6 more runs, clean, turn the flats, and finish up with 
another 6 runs. 

On cassimeres this amount of gigging will be sufficient to 
make the threads show full and clean ; howcYer, a careful exami- 
nation should not be omitted. It will not do to give the goods a 
prescribed number of runs and trust to their coming out all right; 
this matter must be verified by examination. 

Another good way to do the work is to start as before, and 
when changing the flats, put the same grade in both cylinders. 
Give the same number of runs and put the next grade (but better 
this time) into both cylinders, and give the work as described. 
Now put in a set of sharp flats, 'or No. 3's, into each cylinder in 
place of the No. I's; run out the gear of the front cylinder, push 
in the lower gear, and engage both cylinders, making them both 
revolve in the same direction. Before starting, however, all the 
flats in the front cylinder must be reversed, for the cylinder will 
run in the opposite direction. If the flats were not reversed there 
would be no gigging. As both cylinders are now set with sharp 
work the cloth will have to be brought in contact with the cylin- 
ders very gradually. This must not be carelessly performed, for 
if put on too quickly, both the teasels and the cloth will be dam- 
aged. Give the goods 4 runs, bringing the cloth a little closer at 
every run, until at last the teasels will woi'k well into the bottom 
and clear up all of the fibers. 

Before starting the next set, the Avork in both cylinders is, of 
course, removed and replaced with old work; therefore there v/ill 
be little likelihood of having the flats wrong in the front cylinder, 
as they would be were the gig started with the flats reversed. 
The process as described answers very well for cassimeres, but on 
face goods the gigging is more extended. 

All gigging is commenced with old work, and as this accom- 
plishes its mission the sharpness is increased, until at last the 
sharp work may be used. Practice makes perfect in this as in all 
other branches of finishing, and only actual experience can teach 
the best course to pursue in regard to the amount of work the 



84 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 77 

goods should receive. On clear finished goods, where all of the 
nap is removed on the shear, it matters less if fibers are pulled 
out, and therefore the process can be hastened. On face goods it 
is an object to save all the fibers possible, for they are needed to 
produce a good finish. The foregoing constitutes the three means 
employed in raising the fibers with teasels. The next machine 
for this work is the " Napper." 

The Napping Machine. Several styles of nappers are in use, 
and almost everything is claimed for them, but for all practical pur- 
poses the type of which the accompanying illustration. Fig. 20, is a 
sample, has stood the test of practical operation as well, if not 
better, than any other. This napper is provided with a cylinder, 
upon whose circumference is mounted a series of napping rolls. 
The napping rolls revolve independently of the revolution of the 
cylinder, being driven by a mechanism for this purpose, and re- 
volve with the cylinder, but each in an opposite direction from 
the direction of the cylinder. These rolls are covered with gal- 
vanized steel card clothing and are " noucorrosive " except to 
acids. If acid is in the goods to be treated, or in the water, these 
rolls have to be covered with bronze clothing, which will resist it. 

Construction. The goods liave four contacts with the cylin- 
der, and pass over a large roll after each contact. On each side 
of these are stretch rolls, which are spiral threaded, having right 
and left threads. These keep the goods from narrowing or wrin- 
kling. These rolls are driven in the same direction as the cloth, 
but at a greater speed, thus making sure of the smoothness of the 
cloth as it comes in contact with the napping rolls. Back of 
the cylinder is a brush roll 17| inches in diameter, covered with a 
special kind of card clothing. The brush roll lays'and straightens 
the nap. On clear-finished goods this brush roll is not of so much 
value, but on face goods it is of great benefit. 

The spiral stretch rolls, as well as the larger rolls over Wi^.cn 
the cloth passes are, with the exception of the first series, set upon 
the arch ; and as this arch can be raised or lowered at will, it serves 
to bring the cloth in contact with the cylinder. The operator can 
thus regulate all of the contacts at the same time ; and as the mo- 
tion is positive and is provided with a dial, it is possible for the 
operator to always obtain the same contact of the goods. The 



78 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

speed of the napping rolls can be increased or decreased, to either 
hasten the work or make it slower, as the case may require. 

Under the cylinder is a 14|-inch roll covered with fancy 
card clothing, which keeps the napping rolls free from flocks and 
also sharpens the clothing. The working capacity of the napper 
is consequently at the same standard of efficiency always. By 
referring to the illustrations, it will be seen that the cloth goes 
from the box or scray upward over the two guide rolls, down un- 
der the lower guide roll, biick, and over the first spiral stretch 
roll; from there over the cloth roll, again to the second spiral 
stretch roll under which it passes, upward again to the third spiral 
stretch roll, over a cloth roll, and finally to the fourth stretch roll. 
Between the second and third stretch rolls is the first contact of 
the cloth with, the napping rolls. From the fourth stretch roll the 
cloth goes to the fifth, having another contact between the two rolls. 
From the fifth stretch roll it again passes over a cloth roll and to 
the sixth stretch roll ; then from the sixth to the seventh stretch 
roll making another contact, and inste^^d of passing over another 
cloth roll it simply passes on to another plain I'oU, making the 
fourth contact of cloth. It then passes to the brush and there gets 
two contacts, then upward and over guide rolls to the front again, 
where it passes over a cloth roll supplied with an idler roll, which 
presses cloth to the roll to keep it from slipping. The cloth now 
passes down through a folder, and is either folded off on a table 
or into the scray. 

Operation. The napping energy is increased or decreased by 
putting on a smaller or larger driving pulley, according to need. 
On the left-hand side of Fig. 20 are two large pulleys connected 
with a wide belt. One of. the pulleys is mounted on the main 
shaft of the machine, and furnishes the power for the napping rolls 
by communicating the power first to the other large pulley lower 
down. The smaller this pulley is the faster it will revolve, the 
size of the other pulley remaining the same ; consequently by put- 
t)-^g on a smaller pulley at this point, the speed of the napping 
rolls is increased. 

As the process is short, it is not necessary to crowd many 
pieces into the machine, and generally one piece is treated at a 
time. Then again, the absolute certainty of being able to give 



86 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 




87 



80 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

all the pieces the same treatment, is another inducement to put on 
one or, at most, two pieces. The ends of the piece are sewn 
together, and then the machine is ready to start. On those classes 
of cloth which would require the longest amount of time in the 
gigging process, the benefits to be derived from the use of the nap- 
ping mac \ine are more forcibly illustrated, and f^r that loason a 
piece of wJ^ "elted kersey will be used in this connection. 

After the machine is started, the napping rolls revolving at 
their slowest speed, the cloth is put in contact lightly by lowering 
the arch, which brings all the contacts into action at the same time. 
After the piece has been once around, the arch is let down to within 
one or two points of its limit, and the goods given another run. 
The machine is then stopped, ar 1 the arch raised ; then the p^jley 
which drives the napping rolls is taken off, and a smaller one sub- 
stituted. After this, the machine is started again, and the cloth 
brought in contact slowly to the same point, two runs being given. 
The speed of the napping rolls is again changed, and this time to 
the fastest speed obtainable. After starting, the contact is brought 
to its limit by lowering the arch as far as it will go, and the goods 
are given two more runs. The napper will then have raised a 
good thick nap. 

As the work progresses, it is well to step back of the machine 
and examine the cloth as it runs, tlius obtaining an idea of how 
much more napping the pieces require. Simple as the work appears, 
it admits of many changes and methods, which are often dictated 
by individual fancy ; but whatever method is adopted, it should 
always be gradual. 

Because the fast speed of the napping rolls is beneficial to 
the goods at the finishing stage, it must not be supposed that it 
would be so at the time of beginning, and exactly for the same 
reasons as explained in the gigging ; but in napping there are no 
teasel points to break off, and therefore any injury which occurs 
is sustained entirely by the goods. 

On such cloths as cassimeres the napping rolls may be set at 
a medium rate of speed, and with one or, at the most, two runs the 
goods will be well cleared. The napping rolls travel in the 
opposite direction from that of the cylinder and of the cloth. The 
brush lays the nap in the direction it is rf Ised, or in the same direc- 



88 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



81 



tion as the cloth travels. The usual practice is to have the nap 
run from the number end, and, therefore, the number end must come 
last instead of first, as on all other machines. 

, 1 I U'W"^ 




to 



Cropping, It is often necessary in napping, as well as in 
gigging, to send the goods to the shear when the process is half 
completed, to have part of the nap sheared off, in order that the 
napping wire may be facilitated in reaching the bottom. 



89 



82 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



This is termed cropping, and is not only employed to enable 
the teasels or wires to do their work better, but also to give the 
face a smoother and evener appearance. By shearing the nap 
down to an even length, all of the bottom fibers which have thus 
been raised will be retained ; otherwise many under fibers will be 
pulled out instead of being raised, thus producing an opener and 
thinner nap. On very fine goods, such as doeskins and broadcloths, 
it is well to resort to the cropping process twice, as it will mate- 
rially enhance the beauty of the finish. 





Fig. 23. Cylinder and Cleaning Device of Double Acting Napper. 

Double=acting Napper. Another napper, Fig. 21, should be 
mentioned in connection with the napping process, which differs 
materially from all others, and which may be considered as the 
most improved of its kind, — the double-acting napper. 

The diagram shown in Fig. 22 gives a fair idea of the prin- 
ciple of this machine, irrespective of the number of napping rolls. 
It will be observed that at the contact of the cloth, while the rolls 
travel in an opposite direction from the cylinder, every other roll 
is equipped with wires pointing in the opposite direction from its 
neighbor. The cloth is threaded and bears directly upon the 
major portion of the cylinder. In order to clean the two series of 
napping rolls, the device lettered A and B is used. These clean- 



90 




CLOTH SPLITTING MACHINE AND SAMPLE OF PRODUCT 

James A. Cameron 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



83 



ing rolls, positively driven, consist of brushes and blanks, and are 
actuated in such a manner that the brushes clean every other I'oU, 
while the blanks skip the alternate roll. The speed of both series 
of napping rolls is variable, being controlled by expansion pulleys. 
The wire used on this machine is shown in Fig. 23. It will 
be observed that this is needle pointed. The right-hand side of 
each staple shows the needle-pointed wire, while the left point of 
each staple shows the diamond-pointed clothing. The centre 
staple gives an idea of the result of excessive grinding, while that 
on .the right shows how dull a diamond point may become, owing 
to the shortness from the tip of the point to the beginning of the 
full-size wire. The staple on the left shows a sharp point of each 
type. 



» I 




Fig. 23. Needle and Diamond Pointed Clothing. 

While it is not often necessary on nappers to reverse the cloth 
and nap in the opposite direction, still it is done occasionally, to 
obtain the best results. On the other style of napper this is accomp- 
lished only by taking the piece off and turning it, but on this tj-pe 
it is performed at one operation, consequently affecting a saving of 
time. It also produces a different character of nap from the ordinary 
napper. It is shorter, closer, and more like velour, so that on face- 
finished goods it is one of the best machines in use. By attacking 
the felted fibers simultaneously, from opposite directions, they are 
thrown into a more vertical position, and are not drawn or combed 
out, as with the other styles of nappers and gigs. Consequently 
all goods napped on this machine have a softer feel, a fuller and 
better appearance, and retain longer their superior look in handling, 



91 



84 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



than any goods napped or gigged on either the ordinary or the 
teasel gig. There is also less pnll against the threads, and, there- 
fore, less danger of tendering the goods. 

Woolen Napper. A correct idea of the next napper to be con- 
sidered may be obtained from Figs. 24 and 25. This machine has 
sixteen napping rolls, and the cloth is brought in contact with them 
at five points. The relative speed of the workers around their own 




Fig. 24. Woolen Napper, Eight End Yiew. 

axis, and around the drum, or cylinder axis, is governed by a train 
of gears on the left end, beneath the gear guard. These gears are 
rigidly mounted on studs set into the frame. The change gear is 
set on the end of the main shaft, and is connected with the train 
by an intermediate gear on a swinging arm, with a screw adjust- 
ment ; therefore, a change of the speed of the workers can be made 
quickly and easily. 

Another feature of merit in this machine is the cloth feed; by 
means of this the speed of the cloth is controlled, and can be varied 



92 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



85 



between 10 and 20 j^ards a minute by means of change gears. 
The mechanism is found on the lower front of the right-end view. 
The small gear at the right is the change gear. 

As on the other nappers, the cloth contacts are adjusted to- 
gether, and can be operated while the machine is running. A dial 
with an indicator makes it possible to have the same contact at all 




Fig. 25. Woolen Napper, Left End View. 

times. The high-speed laying brush with double cloth contact on 
this napper is of great value in producing a fine finish. A stretch 
roll of very large diameter, which gives a long contact and great 
stretching capacity, operates on the back of the cloth just before 
the first contact with the napping surface. The application rolls 
are right and left screw threaded, and serve to keep the goods 
from narrowing daring their passage. These rolls are brass cover- 
ed, and, therefore, will not leave rust marks on the goods. 



93 



86 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



Such are the features of this machine ; and with the use of 
either of the three styles mentioned, there should be no trouble 
about the quality or the quantity of the work. It should always 
be remembered, however, that if the work has not been ■ executed 
properly in the fulling mill, the gigging process will never remedy- 
it; therefore, examine each piece carefully before it is put on 
either of these machines, and upon its merits decide what amount 
of gigging it should receive. Each piece should also be tested as 
to strength, and the work of napping or gigging conducted in such 
a manner that its strength will not be impaired. 

Dry Gigging. Before leaving the subject of gigging, a few 
words in explanation of the dry-gigging process are needed. 
While on all goods it is best to do the gigging in the moist state, 
circumstances will arise which make it expedient to depart from 
the general rule. Especially is this the case with goods that con- 
tain quite a percentage of cotton. It is always best to dry cloth 
of this nature as soon as possible after the washing has been com- 
pleted. The gigging is performed after the drying instead of be- 
fore. The process itself does not differ from the usual gigging 
process, except that more care should be exercised when it comes 
in contact with the napping or gigging work. 

Dry gigging applies only to low-grade fancies ; but as even 
these goods frequently have some fancy threads with which silk 
has been twisted to produce certain effects, it becomes necessary 
to go very slowly and carefully. If the silk is at all disturbed the 
goods will require an excessive amount of shearing, for silk fiber 
is the hardest of any to cut. Goods of this class containing silk 
are encountered less frequently to-day, owing to the increased use 
of mercerized cotton yarns introduced to imitate the silk effect. 

Wet Gigging. The wet gigging process, rarely used nowa- 
days but an understanding of which is necessary,, is simply a 
brushing of face-finished goods with water. On kerseys which 
are not steamed, but simply " water finished," this method of 
treatment is most important. The call to-day is for steam-fin- 
ished goods with a high luster, but as the appearance of goods is 
regulated by fashion, the return to the dull or water-finished 
goods is only a question of time. 

As before stated, the speck-dyeing process should always 



94 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 87 

follow the gigging ; if goods are to have a dull finish, the wet 
gigging follows the speck-dyeing. 

After the goods come from the washer they are folded out 
straight and are then taken to the wet gig, Fig. 26. This is simply 
an up-and-down gig, the bottom cloth roll of which is set in a tank 




Fig. 26. Wet Gig Showing Winding Attachment. 

filled with water. There is also a perforated water pipe, through 
which the water is introduced to the goods as they pass either to or 
from the bottom roll. The cylinder is usually clothed with dis- 
carded teasel flats, but their use is being discontinued more and 
more and wood-fiber brushes are used instead. The pieces (one at a 



95 



88 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

time) are run on the top roll, and are given 4 or 6 runs down and 
up. After they have run to the top roll for the last time the roll 
is stopped and the end put around a wooden roll placed in the 
winding attachment usually found on these machines. The piece 
is then tightly wound on the wooden roll, the ends being secured 
by tying two strings around them, and is set on end over night. 
This produces a very nice finish, although all the luster will dis- 
appear in the sponging ; the soft feeling of the goods is, however, 
much improved. 

LUSTERINQ. 

Steam Finishing. The elevation. Fig. 27, of the steam- 
finishing machine shows the general arrangement so that it can 
be easily understood. By referring to the outline it will be 
found that the cylinders, upon which the cloth is wound for the 
steaming operation, are perforated to admit the steam. This is 
introduced into the cylinder, and finds its way out and through the 
cloth. As the diameter of these cylinders is about 18 inches, thus 
taking more than a yard and a half of cloth to go around, several 
pieces can be wound on them and steamed at the same time. 
Generally four heavy-weight pieces or six light pieces are enough 
for one operation. 

It is a well-known fact that steam will seek an outlet wherever 
it meets with the least resistance, therefore if the least resistance 
is through the cloth, the whole benefit of the steam will be ob- 
tained, and the process concluded in a reasonably shoi-t time. If, 
however, the steam finds an outlet at the sides instead of going 
through the cloth, the whole process will be extended in point of 
time, and will be generally unsatisfactory. The duration of the 
steaming is always figured from the time it makes its appearance 
all over the outside of the goods in an even manner, and not before, 
so that uneven steaming may be prevented. 

The width of the perforated portion of the cylinders has 
much to do with the character of the work, and consequently 
must be taken into account. If the cylinder is loaded with four 
pieces, the outside fold of cloth will be about 6 inches from the 
outside of the cylinder; or in other words, the thickness of the 
cloth upon the cylinder will be 6 inches. The goods, with sel- 



96 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



89 



■V edges, usually average from 57 to 58 mches in width, so that 
when the perforations come to within an inch or two of the edge 
of the goods it is no more than can be expected to see the steam 




blowing out at the sides long before it will have passed through 
the cloth. Therefore the perforations of the cylinder should be 
no nearer the edge of the goods than the distance from the cylin- 



be 



97 



90 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

der to the outside fold of the cloth ; this being 6 inches for each 
side, makes 12 inches in all. The perforations should be in this 
case 45 to 46 inches in width, or 221 to 23 inches on each side of 
the center of the cylinder. Fill the surplus perforations by driv- 
ing into them wooden shoe-pegs. Smooth the tops so as to leave 
no unevenness, and the steam and water will swell the part inside, 
thus making the wliole as secure as if there had been no perfora- 
tions. If at any time a wider set of perforations is needed, they 
can hd driven in with little difficulty, and the holes opened again. 
If these simple precautions are observed there will be no 
trouble with the steaming, more goods will be taken off in a day, 
and those that are taken off will be found well and evenly steamed. 
Care should be taken to have the goods run exactly in the middle, 
so as to have the distance between the perforations and the edge 
of the cloth equal on both sides. 

The cylinder, if used as it comes from the shop, will cause 
the marks of the perforations to show on the fiist few layers of 
cloth, and therefore should be well covered with several thick- 
nesses of burlap. On top of this several layers of an open cotton, 
preferably cheese clotli if it can be obtained wide enough, should 
be wound. Neither th3 burlap nor the cotton cloth should have 
seams, for they are likely to mark the goods. This covering must 
be put on smoothly and tightly, and some stout twine should be 
wound tightly around it, starting from the point where the edge 
of the cloth will come and winding tightly to the head of the 
cylinder and back again, so that everything is properly secured. 
Now take a sharp knife, run it under the last fold of the cotton 
cloth on the edge of the twine, and cut the last layer back for 
about 18 inches. This is done on both sides, and the flap thus 
made serves to hold the leader or apron, whicli is sewn to the end 
of the cloth. By laying the end of the apron under this flap the 
apron will be held securely, rendering the sewing unnecessary ; 
when winding off, the cloth will easily slip from under without 
making it necessary to stop to undo it. 

Operation. The goods which are ready for the steaming are 
placed evenly on a truck and the several ends nicely sewn together. 
The opposite condition is now encountered in making the seam. 
The ends are usually left on the back, so as to have the face 



98 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 91 

smooth, but here the ends are left on the face, so as to leave the 
back smooth. This is essential, for when the cloth is wound on 
the cylinder the face lies against the back ; if the seam is made 
with the ends on the back about a yard and a half or so from the 
end of the piece, the impress of these ends is left on the face and 
is next to impossible to remove. Should this mistake occur, an 
allowance would have to be made or a remnant cut off ; but when 
the seam is made so that the ends are on the face, the imprint will 
be on the back, where it does no harm. These little things should 
be remembered, for without taking them into account it is impos- 
sible to obtain a perfectly finished piece of the goods. 

Back Cylinder. The pieces are now run on to the loading 
drum or roll, being first drawn through the tension bars, and here 
at the beginning be careful to have the pieces in the right place. 
They should be guided evenly to the drum and be as smooth and 
even as possible. After the drum is loaded, the end of the apron, 
one of which is sewn to each end or the goods, is brought down 
under the guide roll at the front cylinder and thence over the two 
contact rolls, from here around guide rolls, under the back stretch 
roll, and is then placed smoothly upon tlie back cylinder with the 
flap placed over it: See dotted line in Fig. 28. The aprons should 
be long enough to go the whole distance from the first guide roll to 
the cylinder and once around this. Turn the back cylinder around 
once by hand so as to make sure that everything is right and that 
the apron is held tightly ; let the application rolls down so that the 
brush will strike the goods moderately, and after applying the ten- 
sion on the loading roll start up the machine ; then put the back 
cylinder into gear and wind the goods up in a tight smooth roll. 
It will now be seen why cai'e is necessary in loading the drum, 
for if it is done properly there will be no further work ; but it done 
unevenly it will be very difficult to make the goods lie well, and 
their being under tension does not help matters. 

Avoid touching the face of the goods between the brush and 
the cylinder on wliich the goods are wound, for finger-marks will 
show after the goods are finished. Wool fibers are laid wet and 
are dried in that position, cojisequently no amount of dry work will 
change them. When the goods are wet out a second time defects 
may be remedied, but after the wool fiber has been exposed to the 



99 



92 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

action of the steam which it receives in this process, no amount of 
work, wet or dr}-, will entirely bring it back to the proper position. 

The aprons used should not only be of the length indicated, 
but should be wide enough to project about 12 or 18 inches on 
each side of the goods. When the goods have been wound nicely 
on the cylinder, the machine is stopped and the ends of the apron 
securely tied on each side of the goods, so as to form a bag by 
which the cloth is covered. A strip of burlap about 4 inches 
wide is then wound around the piece from one end to the other, 
and secured. This need not bo wound on very tightly, but should 
be well secured. By this arrangement the ends of tlie apron are 
prevented from flapping with the action of the steam. 

The cylinder is now set in motion again and the water valve 
opened to introduce water into the cylinder, until it appears evenly 
on the outside of the goods ; the valve is then shut and the steam 
valve carefully opened. As soon as the steam valve is opened the 
exhaust valve at the end of the cylinder and below the journal is 
opened to let out the Vv^ater. When the steam comes through this, 
the exhaust valve is shut and the steam valve is opened wider. 
When the steam begins to come through the cloth, open the valve 
entirely; and as soon as it comes through the cloth at all points 
make a note of the time, for from this moment the steaming proc- 
ess is figured. Usually about ten minutes are allowed, but on low 
grade stock it is not advisable to give more than two or three min- 
utes. After the steam has been on the prescribed length of time, 
which is governed by the finish required, as well as by the texture 
of the goods, it is turned off, and in a few minutes the water is 
turned on. The cylinder is kept in motion all the time. The 
water should run evenly through the goods, and under no circum- 
stances be turned off until they are properly cooled. 

Front Cylinder. When the cooling is finished turn off the 
water and stop the cylinder, untie all the coverings, and bring one 
apron forward to the front cylinder in the same way in which this 
was accomplished in threading for the back cylinder; that is, 
bring it under the guide roll, up to and over the application rolls, 
then around guide rolls, under the stretch roll, to the cylinder : See 
black line in Fig. 28. Here the same proceeding as on the back 
cylinder takes place. The tension should be put on the back 



100 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



93 



cylinder : the front cylinder is then started and the goods wound 
on. They receive on this cylinder exactly the same treatment as 
at first; the end, however, which was on the outside during the first 
steaming is now next to the cylinder, thus giving both ends the 
same treatment. When cold the goods may be wound on wooden 




•n_j 



rolls and stood on end, or pulled off onto a truck or the loading 
drum, where they remain until they pass to the next process. 

Steam Gig. The simplicity of steaming as practiced to-day 
largely reduces the possibility of its unsuccessful performance ; 
but with some of the older and more complicated methods there 



101 



94 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



is more opportunity for poor woik. The steam gig, Fig. 29, which 
is practically an up-and-down gig, with the top and bottom rolls 
made of perforated copper, is very similar to the steaming machine 
in operation. The goods are run onto the top roll, from there 
under tension to the bottom roll on which they are well wrapped 
and secured. The steaming and cooling is practically the same 




Fig. 29. Steam Gig. 

as already described. The goods also receive a second steaming 
on the top roll. The cylinder acts as a brush, and is, or should 
be, clothed with wood-fiber brushes. The principal difference 
between the two machines is in the amount of cloth that can be 
treated at one time. On account of the size of the rolls one piece 
of heavy-weight goods, or at most two pieces of light-weight 
goods, is all that can be steamed at one operation. Finishers 



lOJ 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 96 

often crowd more goods on to this machine than it is intended to 
handle, but such attempts generally result in failure. 

Boiling Process. Before closing the description of the steam- 
ing process, the primitive way of doing the work merits a few 
words. When no steaming machinery is at hand the woik must 
be accomplished by the old method, — that of boiling. This is the 
foundation of all the steaming processes so far invented. The 
finish obtained by this means is the most lasting of any, no matter 
how produced. 

The goods when properly prepared by gigging and cropping 
are sent to the wet gig and receive a thorough wet gigging, about 
six runs up and down. The piece is then wound on a wooden roll 
under moderate tension, and is securely wrapped, the ends being 
tied. It is placed in a tank, where racks are provided so that each 
piece or roll is isolated, thus not touching anything. After as 
many pieces as the tank will hold have been placed in position, it 
is filled with water and the steam is turned on. The water is kept 
at a moderate boil for about six hours, the heat permeating the 
pieces slowly and evenly. This slow boiling process sets the finish, 
and makes it possible to produce a more lasting finish than by any 
of the later methods since adopted, but on account of the time re- 
quired has been abandoned largely in favor of the latest labor and 
time-saving machines. 

After boiling, the hot water is drawn off and the tank is filled 
with cold water, which is also drawn off after about an hour. The 
pieces are then taken to the wet gig for six more runs. This time 
they are wound on the bottom roll ; from there they are taken to the 
wooden roll, thus making the other end the inner one during 
the process. This boiling is repeated until the desired finish 
is obtained. 

CARBONIZATION. 

Process. The carbonizing process is used for the removal of 
burrs and all vegetable matter found in the goods, which cannot 
be removed on account of the expense, or which it is useless to try 
to cover with speck dye. The nature of the process excludes all 
goods containing cotton ; for being a vegetable substance, it would 
be consumed as readily as any other. The carbonizing of piece 
goods is accomplished by the use of sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol. 



103 



96 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

The goods are immersed in an acid-proof tank, generally lead- 
lined or wooden, about 10 or 12 feet long, 4^ feet deep and 6 
feet wide. A pair of heavy wooden squeeze-rolls are placed on 
one end of the tank ; the extractor should be near at hand. The 
tank is filled with a sulphuric acid bath of 5° Baume. The 
pieces are then entered and kept well under the liquor for about 
twenty minutes, one end of each, or one end of the string, being 
secured near the rolls. They are then passed through the squeeze- 
rolls in such a way that the liquor squeezed out may be returned 
to the tank. From these rolls they pass at once to the extractor, 
with as little handling as possible. 

After the cloth has been extracted it is spread on poles in the 
dry room, or run through the tenter and dried with excessive heat. 
The temperature should not fall below 180° F., otherwise the vege- 
table matter impregnated with the acid will not char. After this 
baking is completed, which may be determined by trying the pieces 
to see if the burrs have been well burned, the goods receive one run 
on an up-and-down gig. The burned vegetable matter is thus 
pulverized, and provided the process has been thoroughly per- 
formed, passes off in a cloud of dust. 

Neutralizing. The acid remaining in the goods after carbon- 
izing should be neutralized by washing the pieces for about twenty- 
five minutes with water containing 2 or 3 per cent of sal soda. 
They are then rinsed for fifteen or twenty minutes. If at the end 
of this time the cloth is still slippery to the touch the acid 
has not been competely neutralized, the washing should be repeated. 
On piece-dyed goods where acid colors are used, the neutralizing 
process is not necessary ; the cloth, after beating on the gig, is at 
once sent to the dye-house. 



104 



SHRINKAGE TABLES. 

Explanation. In the following tables the first column represents 
the weight of the goods per yard as they come from the loom, the 
figures representing ounces and tenths of ounces. At the top of each 
of the other columns is given the estimated per cent of loss sustained 
by the goods in the process of finishing. On a line with the weight 
of goods, as given in the first column, are found two hues of figures; 
the upper one in Roman type and the lower in italics. The upper 
figures represent the finished weight required and the italics show 
the amount the goods must be shrunk per yard in order to obtain the 
finished weight. The italics represent inches and tenths of inches. 

To use the tables it is necessary to estimate the percentage of 
loss, then look in the column representing such percentage as indicated 
at the tcp and follow down this column until in line with the weight 
from loom in the first column, when the necessary amount of shrinkage 
per yard will be found under the figures giving the finished weight 
wanted. 

For example, assume that it is necessary to find the shrinkage 
for a piece of cloth weighing 18.5 ounces from the loom which is to 
finish 19 ounces, and which it is estimated loses 25 per cent in finishing. 
The method would be as follows : Follow the 25 per cent loss column 
until in line with the figures 18.5 in the first column. Under the figures 
19 will be found the figures 9.7 in italics, which means that each yard 
must be shrunk 9.7 inches in length in order to give a finished weight 
of 19 ounces. 



105 



SHRINKAGE. 

ESTIMATED PER CENT OF LOSS. 



Weight 




















in oz. 




















per yard 


10 per 


cent. 


12JP 


er cent. 




15 per cent. 


17i per cent. 


from 




















loom. 




















7 


8 




8 






8 






8 


7-7 




^.^ 






9.2 






70.0 


7.5 


8 

5.6 




8 






8 

7-3 






8 

8.1 


8 


8 9 




8 9 






8 


9 




8 9 


3.6 7.2 




4.5 8.0 






5.4? 


8.8 




6.3 9.6 


8.5 


8 9 




8 9 






8 


9 




8 9 


1.6 5.4 




2-5 6.3 






3-5 


7-^ 




4.4 8.0 


9 


9 10 




8 9 


10 




8 


9 10 




8 9 10 


3.6 6.g 




0-5 4-5 


7.6 




7.6 


5.4 8.7 




2.5 6.3 g.4 


9.5 


9 10 




9 10 






9 


10 




8 9 10 


1.8 5.4 




2.,? 6.S 






3-7 


6.9 




0.6 4.7 7.6 


10 


10 11 




9 10 


11 




9 


10 11 




9 10 11 


3.6 6.6 




/.o .^^.7 


7-5 




5.0 


5.4 8.2 




3.0 6.5 9.2 


10.5 


10 11 




10 11 






9 


10 11 




9 10 11 ■ 


2.2 5-2 




2.6 5.9 






o.j- 


3.6 6.9 




1-3 4-7 7-9 


11 


10 11 


12 


10 11 


12 




10 


11 12 




10 11 12 


0.4 3.6 


6.J 


1.5 4.6 


7-2 




2.2 


S.6 8.1 




3.4 6.6 9.0 


11.5 


11 12 




11 12 






10 


11 12 




10 11 12 


2-3 4-9 




3-3 5-8 






o.<« 


4-1 6.7 




1.8 5.1 7.6 


12 


11 12 


13 


11 12 


13 




11 


12 13 




10 11 12 13 


0.7 3.6 


6.1 


/.<5 4-5 


7-0 




2.6 


J-^' 7-8 




0.4 3.6 6.3 8-6 


12.5 


12 13 




11 12 


13 




11 


12 13 




11 12 13 


2.2 4.8 




oj J.^ 


5-7 




•^•J 


./.2 6.7 




2-3 5-1 7-5 


13 


12 13 


14 


12 13 


14 




12 


13 14 




11 12 13 14 


0-9 3-6 


5-9 


1.8 4.5 


6.6 




J-o 


S-6 7-7 




7.0 3.9 6.4 8.5 


13.5 


13 14 




12 13 


14 




12 


13 14 




12 13 14 


2-3 4 7 




0.4 33 


J.6 




1.6 


4-3 6.5 




2.7 5-2 7-5 ■ 


14 


13 14 


15 


13 14 


15 




12 


13 14 


15 


12 13 14 15 


/./ 3.6 


5-8 


2 2 4.6 


6.7 




oj 


3-1 5-4 


7-5 


1.5 4.0 6.4 8.3 


14.5 


14 15 




13 14 


15 




13 


14 15 




12 13 14 15 


2.4 4.7 




i-i 3-5 


5-7 




1.8 


^.^^ 6.5 




0.3 2.8 3.2 7.3 


15 


14 15 


16 


14 15 


16 




13 


14 15 


16 


13 14 15 16 


1-3 3-6 


5.6 


2.J 4.6 


6-5 




0.(5 


i'-^' 5-5 


7-2 


7.7 40 6.3 8.0 


15.5 


14 15 


16 


14 15 


16 




14 


15 16 




13 14 15 16 


0.3 2.5 


4.6 


^•J ^-5 


5-5 




5.2 


4 5 63 




0.6 3.0 53 7.0 


16 


15 16 


17 


14 15 


16 


17 


14 


15 16 


17 


14 15 16 17 


1.4 3-6 


6.4 


0.3 2.4 


■/■5 


7-3 


7.0 


3 4 5-4 


5.7 


2.0 4.3 6.0 8.9 


16.5 


15 16 


17 


15 16 


17 




15 


16 17 




14 15 16 17 


0.3 2.6 


5-i 


^3 3-5 


6.^ 




2.4 


4.4 7.2 




-f-o 3-3 5-3 8.0 


17 


16 17 


18 


15 16 


17 


18 


15 


16 17 


18 


15 16 17 18 


1.6 4.3 


5-4 


0.2 2.5 


5-5 


6.2 


1.4 


J-i 6.3 


7.7 


2.4 4.5 7-1 8.0 


17.5 


16 17 


18 


16 17 


18 




15 


16 17 


18 


15 16 17 18 


0.6 3.6 


<<5 


/■5 4-5 


5-3 




o-J 


2-5 J-^' 


6.J 


1-4 3-5 63 7.1 


18 


17 18 


19 


16 17 


18 


19 


16 


17 18 


19 


15 16 17 18 19 


2.6 36 


5 3 


0-5 J 6 


4.4 


6.0 


7.6 


4-5 5-4 


7.0 


0.4 2.6 5.4 6.3 7.9 


18.5 - 


17 18 


19 


17 18 


19 




16 


17 18 


19 


16 17 18 19 


1.7 27 


4-3 


^•7 J -5 


5-2 




0.7 


3.6 4.6 


6.2 


1.8 4-4 5-6 7-1 


19 


17 18 


19 20 


17 18 


19 


20 


17 


18 19 


20 


16 17 18 19 20 


08 1.8 


3-4 5-3 


1-7 2-7 


4-5 


6.1 


5.7 


3-7 5-4 


7.0 


7.0 3.7 4.6 6.3 7.8 


19.5 


18 19 


20 


17 18 


19 


20 


17 


18 19 


20 


17 18 19 20 


9 2.6 


■s'-i 


o.S 1.8 


3-7 


5 -J 


1.8 


.2.9 4.6 


6j 


2.83.8 5.5 7.0 


20 


19 20 


21 


18 19 


20 


21 


17 


18 19 


20 21 


17 18 19 20 21 


7.9 3.6 


5-1 


i.o 2.g 


4.6 


6.0 


0.9 


2.0 J..? 


5-4 69 


7.9 J. 4.7 63 7.7 


20.5 


19 20 


21 


19 20 


21 




18 


19 20 


21 


17 18 19 20 21 


z.o 2.8 


4.4 


5 3.8 


5-3 




I.I 


3.0-46 


6.2 


7.0 2.2 3.9 s-5 7-0 


21 


19 20 


21 22 


19 20 


21 


22 


18 


19 20 


21 22 


18 19 20 21 22 


0.2 2.0 


J-6 5-J- 


/./ J.O 


4.4 


6.0 


o-J 


2.2 3.9 


5-4 6.8 


1.3 3.2 4 8 6.3 7.3 


21.5 


20 21 


22 


19 20 


21 


22 


19 


20 21 


22 


18 19 20 21 22 


1.2 2.g 


■i'J 


0.3 2.2 


J.« 


5-2 


7.^ 


J I 4-7 


6 7 


0.3 2.4 4.0 5.6 6.9 


22 


20 21 


22 23 


20 21 


22 


23 


19 


20 21 


22 23 


19 20 21 22 23 


0.4 2.1 


36 5-1 


1.4 30 


./5 


5-9 


0.6 


2.5 4.0 


5^ i5.7 


1.6 3.3 4.9 63 7.6 


22.5 


21 22 


23 


20 21 


22 


23 


20 


21 22 


23 


19 20 21 22 23 


1.3 2.8 


^•J 


0.6 2.3 


J.^ 


5.? 


•'•7 


J-J 4'-7 


6.1 


0.8 2.3 4.2 5.6 7.0 



106 



SHRINKAGE. 

ESTIMATED PER CENT OF LOSS. 



Weight 










in oz. 










per yard 


20 per cent. 


22i per cent. 


25 per cent. 


from 










loom. 










7 


8 


8 




8 


70.5 


11.6 




12.4 


7.5 


8 


8 




8 




9-0 


g.g 




10.7 


8 


8 9 


8 9 




8 9 


7.2 J0.4 


S.T II. 2 




g.o 12.0 


8.5 


8 9 


8 9 




8 9 


S-4S.S 


63 9.7 




7-3 10.3 


9 


8 9 10 


8 9 10 




8 9 10 


J. (5 7.2 lo.i 


7.3 8.1 lo.S 




5.6 g.o 11.6 


9,5 


8 9 10 


8 9 10 




8 9 10 


i.S 3.6 8.7 


2.7 6.6 g.4 




3-9 7-5 10-3 


10 


^9 10 11 


8 9 10 11 




8 9 10 11 


4.0 7.2 g.g 


o.g 3.0 7.6 103 




2.2 6.0 9.0 11.3 


105 


9 10 11 


9 10 11 




8 9 10 11 


2-4 5-S 8.5 


J-S 6.3 g3 




0.3 4.5 7.6 10.3 


11 


9 10 11 12 


9 10 11 12 




9 10 11 12 


0.8 4.4 7.2 g.6 


i.g 3.4 8.2 10.3 




3.0 6.5 9.2 11.4 


11.5 


10 11 12 


9 10 11 12 




9 10 11 12 


2.9 s.g 8.4 


03 4.0 6.g g3 




1.3 5./ 7-9 10.2 


12 


10 11 12 13 


10 11 12 13 




10 11 12 13 


1.5 4.6 7.2 g.4 


2.6 3.6 8.1 10.3 




3.6 6.6 9.0 ii.i 


12.5 


11 12 13 


10 11 12 13 




10 11 12 13 


3.3 6.0 8.3 


/./ 4-4 7-0 9-3 




2.2 3.4 7.8 lO.O 


13 


11 12 13 14 


11 12 13 14 




10 11 12 13 14 


2.0 4.8 7.2 g.i 


3-3 5-9 S3 10-3 




0.8 4.3 6.6 S.g 10.8 


13.5 


11 12 13 14 


11 12 13 14 




11 12 13 14 


0.T3.6 6.1 8.1 


2.0 4.7 7.2 g.3 




3.0 3.6 7.g g.g 


14 


12 13 14 15 


11 12 13 14 15 




11 12 13 14 15 


2.4 5-0 7-2 9-2 


0.7 3.6 61 8.2 g.8 




/./ 4.3 7.0 9.0 10.8 


14.5 


12 13 14 15 


12 13 14 15 




11 12 13 14 15 


1.2 3.g 6.2 8.2 


2.4 3.0 7.4 8.8 




0.4 3.4 6.0 8.1 g.g 


15 


13 14 15 16 


12 13 14 15 16 




12 13 14 15 16 


2.8 5.2 7.2 g.o , 


1.23.9 6.7 7.9 g.8 




2.4 3.0 7.2 g.o ia.7 


15.5^ 


13 14 15 16 


13 14 15 16 




12 13 14 15 16 


/./ 4.1 6.2 8.1 


2.8 3.4 6.9 8.g 




1.2 3.g 6.3 8.1 g.8 


16 


13 14 15 16 17 


13 14 15 16 17 




13 14 15 16 17 


0.6 3.0 3.3 7.2 g.7 


1.7 4.1 6.0 8.0 10.7 




2.8 3.g 7.2 g.o 11.4 


16.5 


14 15 16 17 


13 14 15 16 17 




13 14 15 16 17 


2 4.3 6.3 8.g 


0.6 3.1 3.1 70 g.S 




1.7 4.3 6.3 8.2 10.7 


17 


14 15 16 17 18 


14 15 16 17 18 




13 14 15 16 17 18 


i.o 3.4 5.4 8.0 8.8 


2.0 4.2 6.0 S.g g.7 




0.6 3.1 5-4 7-3 9-8 10-5 


17.5 


15 16 17 18 


14 15 16 17 18 




14 15 16 17 18 


2.4 4.5 7.2 8.0 


1.0 3.2 3.3 8.0 S.g 




2.2 4.3 6.3 g.o 9.8 


18 


15 16 17 18 19 


15 16 17 18 19 




14 15 16 17 18 19 


1.4 3.6 6.6 7.4 8.7 


2.3 4.6 7.3 8.1 g.6 




•f-J 3-6 5-6 8.2 g.o 10.4 


18.5 


15 16 17 18 19 


15 16 17 18 19 




14 15 16 17 18 19 


0.4 2.7 s.g 6.4 8.0 


J- -4 3-7 6.3 73 S.8 




0.3 2.7 4.8 7.4 S3 g.7 


19 


16 17 18 19 20 


15 16 17 18 19 


20 


15 16 17 18 19 20 


1.8 48 3.6 7.2 8.7 


0-3 2.g 3-7 6.3 8.0 


9-5 


I.S 4.0 6.6 7.3 g.o 10.4 


19.5 


16 17 18 19 20 


16 17 18 19 20 




15 16 17 18 19 20 


o.g 3.8 4.8 6.4 8 


1.9 4-S 3-8 7-3 S.8 




o.g 3.0 3.8 6.8 8.3 g.7 


20 


17 18 19 20 21 


16 17 18 19 20 


21 


16 17 18 19 20 21 


2.g 4.0 3.7 7.2 8.6 


0-9 3 9 3-0 6.6 8.1 


9-4 


2.0 4.9 6.0 7.6 9.0 10.3 


20.5 


17 18 19 20 21 


17 18 19 20 21 




16 17 18 19 20 21 


2.0 3.2 4.g 6.3 7.g 


3.0 4.2 3.6 7.4 8.8 




13 4-0 5-3 6.9 8.3 g.6 


21 


17 18 19 20 21 22 


17 18 19 20 21 


22 


17 18 19 20 21 22 


1.4 2.4 4.2 3.8 7.2 8.3 


2.2 3.4 4.6 6.7 8.1 


9-3 


3.3 4-5 6.2 7.7 g.o 10.2 


21.5 


17 18 19 20 21 22 


17 18 19 20 21 


22 


17 18 19 20 21 22 


0.7 1.6 3.4 3.1 6.5 7.8 


1.3 2.6 4.1 6.0 7.4 


8.7 


2.6 3.8 3.4 7.0 83 g.6 


22 


18 19 20 21 22 23 


17 18 19 20 21 


22 23 


17 18 19 20 21 22 23 


0.8 2.7 4.4 3.8 7.2 8.3 


0.6 I.g 3.7 33 6.8 8.1 9.2 


1.8 3.0 4.7 6.3 7.7 g.o 10.0 


22.5 


19 20 21 22 23 


18 19 20 21 22 


23 


17 18 19 20 21 22 23 


^■9 3-7 5-2 6.4 7.8 


/./ 2.7 46 6.2 7.4 


8.6 


I 2.3 4.0 3.5 6.4 8.4 g.3 



107 



SHRINKAGE. 

ESTIMATED PER CENT OF LOSS. 



Weight 
In oz. 

per yard 
from 
loom. 



23 

23.5 

24 

24.5 

25 

25.5 

26 

26.5 

27 

27.5 

28 

28.5 

29 

29.5 

30 

30.5 

31 

31.5 

32 

32.5 

33 

33.5 

34 

34 5 

35 

35.5 

36 

36 5 

37 

37.5 

38 • 

38.5 

39 



10 per cent. 



21 22 

0.5 2.0 

22 23 
1.3 2.g 

22 23 

y 2.2 

23 24 
15 2-9 

23 24 
0.8 2.3 

24 25 
1.6 3.0 

24 25 
0.9 23 

25 26 
1.6 3.0 

25 26 

i.o 2.4 

25 26 
0.4 1.8 

26 27 
/./ 2.4 

26 27 
0.4 I 8 

27 28 

1 2 2.4 

27 28 
0.6 z.g 

28 29 
13 2-5 

28 29 
0.7 1.9 

29 30 
1 -f 2.5 

29 30 

0.8 2.0 

30 
15 

30 
1.0 

30 
0.4 



23 24 

24 
4-3 

24 25 
J-6 4-9 

25 
4-3 

25 26 
3.6 4-8 

26 
42 

26 27 
36 48 

27 
42 

27 28 
36 4-8 

27 28 
3.0 4.2 

28 29 
36 4-7 

28 29 
3041 

29 3D 
J-6 ^.7 

29 30 
3.0 4.2 

30 
3.6 

30 
3-1 



Vl\ per cent. 



21 22 23 

1-5 3-0 4-5 

21 22 23 
o 7 2.3 3.9 

22 23 24 
/.; 3.2 4.6 

22 23 24 

1.0 2.5 40 

22 23 24 
0-3 1-8 3-4 

23 24 25 
/./ 2.7 3.9 

23 24 25 
0.4 2.0 33 

24 25 26 
15 2.6 3.9 

24 25 26 
0.9 20 3.3 

25 26 27 
1-3 2.7 3.9 

25 26 27 
0.7 2.1 3.3 

26 27 28 
1.4 2 7 3.9 

26 27 28 
0.8 2.1 3.4 

27 28 29 
15 2.8 4.0 

27 28 29 
0-9 2.3 3.5 

28 29 30 
1.7 29 4.0 

28 29 30 

/•/ 2.4 35 

28 29 30 
0.6 1.8 3.0 

29 30 
1.2 2.5 

29 30 

0.7 20 

30 
1.4 

30 
0.9 



24 

59 

24 
5-2 

25 
5-8 

25 
5-2 

25 26 
45 5-7 

26 
5-1 

26 27 
4-5 5-7 

27 
5-1 

27 28 

28 

28 29 

4-5 5-6 
29 
5-0 

29 30 
4-5 5-5 

30 
5-0 

30 
4-5 



15 per cent. 



21 

Z.I 

21 
22 



24 

6.7 



25 



20 21 22 23 

0.9 2.5 4.0 5.4 

21 22 23 24 
1.8 3.3 4.8 6.0 

22 23 24 

2.6 4.1 s 4 6.6 

22 23 24 25 
/ 9 3.4 4.8 6.0 

23 24 25 26 
27 4-2 5 4 6.6 

23 24 25 



22 
0.5 
23 



26 

2.1 35 4.8 6.0 



23 



24 
0.9 
25 



1-3 
26 

0.7 
27 

^■5 
27 

0.9 
28 

1.6 

28 



27 
<5.i 
27 



6.5 
28 



6i 
29 



24 25 26 

29 4-2 5-4 

24 25 26 
07 2.3 36 4.8 5.9 

24 25 26 27 28 
1.6 3.0 4.2 5 4 

25 26 27 
23 3-(> 4-9 6.0 

26 27 28 29 
r.7 3.1 4.3 5.4 

25 26 27 28 
i-i 2.5 3.7 4.8 6 o 

25 26 27 28 29 30 
0.5 1.9 3.1 4.35.46.4 

26 27 28 29 30 
25 3-7 4-9 5-9 

27 28 29 30 
2.0 3.2 4.4 5.4 

28 29 30 
2.7 3.8 4.9 

28 29 30 
2.Z 33 4 4 

29 30 
2-8 39 

29 30 
z.o 2234 
28 29 30 
2.9 



17^ per cent. 



04 


1-7 


29 


30 


1.2 


2.4 


29 


30 


0.7 


' 9 


30 




^■3 




30 




0.8 





20 21 22 

1.8 3.5 5.0 
20 21 22 
1.0 2.8 43 

20 21 ^2 
0.3 2.1 3.6 

21 22 23 
1-42944 

21 22 23 
0.7 2.2 3 7 

22 23 24 
I 6 3 I 46 

22 23 24 

1.0 2.5 3.9 

22 23 24 
0-3 1833 

23 24 25 

1.1 2.6 4.0 

23 24 25 
0.5 1.9 3.2 

24 25 26 
1.3 23 4.0 

24 25 26 
0.7 1.8 3.4 

25 26 27 

1.2 2.9 4.0 

25 26 27 
o 4 23 3.5 

26 27 28 
1.8 3 o 4 2 

26 27 28 
1-2 2.5 3 7 

26 27 28 
0.6 1.6 3.1 

27 28 29 
I -I 26 3.7 

27 28 29 
o 6 2.0 3 2 

28 29 30 
1-5 2.6 3.8 

28 29 30 
i-o 2.1 33 

28 29 30 
o.s 1.6 2.8 

29 30 
/./ 23 

29 30 
0.6 1.8 

30 
1.4 

30 
0-9 



23 24 

6.3 7.6 
23 24 
5-7 72 

23 24 25 
5 I 6.2 7.5 

24 25 
5-7 6.9 

24 25 26 
5 I 6.3 7.5 

25 26 
5-7 6.9 

25 26 27 
5-1 6.3 7.2 

25 26 27 
4-5 5-7 6-7 

26 27 28 
5-1 6.2 7.4 

26 27 28 
45 5-6 6.9 

27 28 29 
5.0 63 7.2 

27 28 29 
4 5 5-8 6.7 

28 29 30 
5-3 6.2 7.3 

28 29 30 
4.7 5.7 6.8 

29 30 
5.2 63 

29 30 
4-758 

29 30 
4-2 5-^ 

30 
4.8 

30 
43 



108 



SHRINKAGE. 
ESTIMATED PER CENT OF LOSS. 



Weight 








in oz. 








per yard 


20 per cent. 


224 per cent. 


'iSi per cent. 


from 








loom. 








23 


19 20 21 22 23 24 


18 19 20 21 22 23 24 


18 19 20 21 22 23 24 


1.2 2.g 4.5 S.g 7.2 8.4 


0.4 2.0 4.0 3.3 6.g 8 I 93 


'■5 33 4-9 S-S 7-8 9 lo.i 


235 


19 20 21 22 23 24 


19 20 21 2 2 23 24 


IS 19 20 21 22 23 24 


04 2 2 3.8 5.3 6.6 7.8 


1.4 3-3 4-S 6.2 7 6 8.7 


0.8 2.6 4.2 3 I 7.1 8.3 9.6 


24 


20 21 22 23 24 25 


19 20 21 22 23 24 25 


19 20 21 21 23 24 25 


1.5 3.1 4.6 S3 7-2 S-4 


0.8 2.6 4.1 3.6 7 8 I 9.3 


^ 9 3-6 4-5 6.5 7-9 9 10.2 


24.5 


20 21 22 23 24 25 


20 21 22 23 24 25 


19 20 21 22 23 24 25 


o.y 2.4 4 4 7 6.6 J.8 


1.8 3.3 3.0 6.3 7.3 8.7 


1.2 2.9 4-0 5-9 73 S.4 9-6 


25 


21 22 23 24 25 26 


20 21 22 23 24 25 26 


19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 


1.7 33 4-1 6.0 7.2 8.3 


I.I 2.8 43 3.7 7.0 8.1 9.2 


0-5 23 33 53 ^7 7 9 9-° 10 


25.5 


21 22 23 24 25 26 


20 21 22 23 24 25 26 


20 21 22 23 24 25 26 


/./ 2.6 3.5 5.4 6.6 7.3 


03 2.1 3.6 3.1 6.4 7.5 8.7 


1.6 2.6 4.7 6.1 73 8.3 9 3 


26 


21 22 23 24 25 26 27 


21 22 23 24 25 26 27 


20 21 22 23 24 2r> 2t: 27 


0.6 2.0 2.8 4.8 6.0 7 2 So 


^■3 3-0 4-5 5-S 7-0 S.i 9.0 


9 2.0 4.1 5.3 6 8 7.9 9.0 10 


2G.5 


22 23 24 25 26 27 


21 22 23 24 25 26 27 


21 22 23 24 25 26 27 


13 2.2 4.2 5.5 6.6 7.5 


6 2.4 3.9 3.2 6.4 7.6 8.3 


1-3 3-5 4-9 6.2 73 85 9 5 


27 


22 23 24 25 26 27 28 


22 23 24 25 26 27 28 


21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 


0.7 J.6 3 6 4 g 6.0 7.0 8.2 


1.8 33 4.6 3.9 7.0 So 9.1 


0.6 2.9 4.2 3.7 6 8 S 9.0 lo.o 


27.5 


23 24 25 26 27 28 


22 23 24 25 26 27 28 


22 23 24 2.5 26 27 28 


i.o 3 4.0 5.4 6.5 7.7 


1.2 2.6 4.0 3.2 6.3 7.3 8.6 


23 3-7 5-1 6.3 7.3 S.3 9.5 


28 


23 24 25 26 27 28 29 


22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 


22 23 24 25 26 27 28 2) 


0.4 2.4 3.0 4.8 6.0 7.2 8.0 


0.6 2.0 3.3 4.4 6.0 7.0 8.1 8.9 


1.6 3.1 4.6 3.8 7.0 8.0 9.0 10 


28.5 


24 25 26 27 28 29 


23 24 25 26 27 28 29 


22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 


1.8 2.4 4.3 5.5 6.7 7.5 


1.3 2.9 3.8 3.4 6.3 7.6 8.3 


0.9 2.6 4.1 3.1 6 3 7.3 8.3 9 3 


29 


24 25 26 27 28 29 30 


23 24 25 26 27 23 29 30 


23 24 2J 26 27 28 29 30 


J. 2 2.8 J. 9 5.0 6.2 7.0 8.2 


0.9 2.4 3.2 4.9 6.0 7.1 8.0 9.1 


2 3.3 4.3 3.9 7 8.0 9.0 9.9 


29.5 


24 25 26 27 28 29 30 


24 25 26 27 28 29 30 


23 24 25 26 27 28 '29 30 


0.6 I.I 3.3 4.5 5.7 6.3 7.7 


1.8 2.3 4.3 5.3 6.6 7.5 8.6 


1.4 304-033 6.3 7-5 S.3 9-4 


30 


2o 26 27 28 29 30 


24 25 26 27 28 29 30 


23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 


0.4 2.8 4.0 3.2 6.0 7.2 


1.2 2.0 3.8 3.0 6.1 7.0 8.1 


0.8 2.4 3.6 4.8 6.0 7.0 S 90 


30.5 


26 27 28 29 30 


24 25 26 27 28 29 30 


24 25 26 27 28 29 30 


2.2 3.5 4.6 5.3 6.8 


0.6 1.4 3-2 4-5 5-5 6-3 7-6 


1.8 3.0 43 5 5 6.3 73 S.3 


31 


26 27 28 29 30 


25 26 27 28 29 30 


24 25 26 27 28 29 30 


1-7 30 4-1 S-o 63 


0.8 2 7 4.0 3.0 6.0 7.2 


1.2 2.5 3.8 30 60 7.0 8.1 


31.5 


11 28 29 30 


26 27 28 29 30 


24 25 26 27 28 29 30 


2-5 3 6 4-5 5-8 


2 2 3-5 4-5 5-5 6.7 


06 2.0 33 455563 7-7 


32 


21 28 29 30 


26 27 28 29 30 


25 26 27 28 29 30. 


2.0 3.0 4.0 3.3 


1.7 3.0 4.0 3.0 6.2 


1.4 2.8 4 3.0 6.0 7.2 


32.5 


27 28 29 30 


26 27 28 29 30 


25 26 27 28 29 30 


^■4 2.3 3.3 48 


I 2 2.3 3.5 4.5 5.7 


o-S 23 3.3 4-5 5-5 6.7 


33 


27 28 29 30 


26 27 28 29 30 


26 27 28 29 30 


0.8 2.0 3.0 4.3 


0.7 2.0 3 4.0 33 


/./ 3.0 4.0 3.0 63 


33.5 


28 29 30 


27 28 29 30 


26 27 28 29 30 


1.3 2.3 3.8 


15 2.3 3.3 4-S 


1.2 2.3 3.5 4.3 3.9 


34 


28 29 30 


27 28 29 30 


26 27 28 29 30 


1.0 2.0 3.4 


1.0 2.0 3.0 4.4 


0.7 2.03.0 415-4 


34.5 


28 29 30 


27 28 29 30 


27 28 29 30 


0.5 1.5 2.9 


0.3 1.3 2.3 3.9 


1-5 2-5 3-749 


35 


29 30 


28 29 30 


27 28 29 30 


1.0 2.4 


1.0 2 3.3 


1.0 2.0 32 4.3 


35.5 


29 30 


28 29 30 


27 28 29 30 


0.3 1.9 


0.3 1.3 2.9 


0.3 1.3 2.7 4.1 


36 


30 


29 30 


28 29 30 


1-5 


1.0 2.3 


1.0 2 236 


36.5 


30 


29 30 


28 29 30 


0.9 


0.5 2.0 


0.5 1.7 3.1 


37 




30 


29 30 




1-5 


1.2 2.6 


37.5 




30 


29 30 






0.9 


0.7 2.1 


38 






30 

1.6 


38.5 






30 

I.I 


39 






30 

0.6 



109 




FIFTY CELL DRYER RUNNING ON BACK GREYS 

Vacuum Process Co. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED 
FINISHING. 



PAKT II, 



DRY FINISHING. 

The dry finishing of woolen and worsted goods consists of 
the following processes: Drying^ hrusTiing^ shearing^ y_>r6'.s.sm^, 
final inspection^ measuring^ rolling, and jxcching. 

DRYING. 
Natural Process. The drying process, which is the first 
operation, is performed in two ways — the natural and the arti- 
Jicial. When the natural method of drying is employed, the 



M 



M 




C 



?r'- 



c 



YV 



mz 



Fig. 30. Tenter Bars. 



goods, after being well extracted or squeezed, are stretched on the 
tenter bars, as previously explained. These tenter bars consist of 
posts firmly set in the ground about eight feet apart, with cross 
bars of two-by-four material, the top one of which is rigid and the 
bottom one movable; the complete framework appearing some- 
what as in the illustration, Fig. 30. Hooks or patent clothing, of 
which Figs. 31 and 32 give a good idea, are fitted to the cross 
bars, and the posts carry arms which can be let down to hold the 



111 



104 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 




cloth until it is hooked. The piece is stretched by hooking one 
end to the first post by means of a strip of card clothing, and to 

the top and bottom bars for four or five 
hooks from the end: then hookino- the 
other end to the head board (illustrated 
at Fig. 33) and drawing it out to there- 
quired length, where it is held by attach- 
ing the head board to one of the posts. 
The selvedge on one end of the cloth is 
now fastened at intervals on the top bar and the other selvedge 
fastened in the same manner to the bottom bar. 

On (jigged goods it is customary to brush the nap which has 
become roughened by treatment in this process. On close-finished 
goods this is not necessary, but must be done in all cases on 
face goods to remove roughness caused by handling. Wool fibre 
will remain in the position in which it dries, so that if on napped 



Fig. 31. Teuter Hook. 




/// 



-r 



(2) 




-I, 




Fig. 33. Tenter Bar Clothing. 

goods the nap is roughened and dried rough, no amount of after 
work will smooth it out. After the goods are dry they are 
removed from the bars and taken inside to be immediately folded. 
In doing this every inch of the listing should pass through the 
folder's hands to make sure that no hooks or pins remain in the 
goods. The bars being of wood and exposed to the weather will 
crack and the hooks or pins become loosened, so that in taking the 
goods off the bars some of the pins may come out, and sticking in 
the cloth cause damage unless removed. 

The above is the natural process of drying which is in use in 
many places, but on account of the length of time required, uncer- 



113 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



105 



tainty of weather, and other disadvantages, the substitution of the 
more positive artificial process is rapidly coming about. 

Artificial Process. 
The more nearly natural 
conditions can be ap- 
proximated, the more 
successful the artificial 
process of drying will be. 
These conditions consist 
chiefly in a generous 
supply of air to absorb 
the moisture together 
with the spreading of 
the cloth in such a way 
that the air may have easy access to all parts of it. The idea that 
heat will expel water is erroneous. The application of heat is effec- 
tive in drying because of the greater absorptive capacity of heated 
air as compared with cool air. A certain amount of moisture being 
always present in the air it is capable of absorbing still more if 
heated, but unless the air is supplied in sutficient quantities, the 
heat alone will not dry the goods. 

The following table shows the capacity of absorption of air 
for moisture at various degrees of heat: 

Weight of Water Absorbed by One Cubic Yard of Air. 




Fig. 33. Headboard. 



At degrees F. 


Grains of 
Vapor. 


Increase 

of absorption. 

Grains. 


At degrees F. 


Grains of 
Vapor. 


Increase 

of absorption. 

Grains. 


32 


60.50 


18.31 


131 


1214.70 


301.46 


41 


78.81 


30.21 


140 


1516.16 


361.10 


50 


109.02 


40.09 


149 


1877.26 


430.41 


59 


149.11 


52.52 


158 


2307.67 


506.42 


68 


201.63 


65.78 


167 


2814.09 


595.92 


77 


267.14 


86.56 


176 


3410.01 


690.43 


86 


353.97 


106.79 


185 


4100.44 


808.98 


95 


460.76 


133.38 


194 


4909.42 


929.66 


104 


594.14 


166.85 


203 


5839.08 


1070.73 


113 


760.99 


222.49 


212 


6909.81 




122 


983.48 


231.22 









Note : Oue povind is equal to 7000 graius. 

It will be seen by the table that as the temperature increases, 
the power of the air to absorb moisture increases, so that the 



113 



106 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

increased capacity from the last 9° of heat is about fifty times 
that of the first 9°. As there is always some moisture present in 
the air, the actual comparison is greater. When air is heated it 
becomes lighter and rises; therefore it is advisable to introduce 
the fresh or unheated air from below and pass it through the 
heating apparatus, enabling it to absorb its full amount of mois- 
ture in its upward course. If the air is left in the compartment 
until it has absorbed all the moisture possible at its temperature, 
and is given no chance to pass off, the drying process will cease; 
therefore it is necessary to furnish a supply of fresh air at the 
bottom and provide suitable means to conduct the moisture-laden 
air from the top. When these requirements are filled, the drying 
will be rapid and no trouble will be experienced. 

Construction. Fig. 34 illustrates one of the modern drying 
and tentering machines now in extensive use. As will be seen it 
consists of a framework supporting numerous layers of steam 
pipes, between which passes a chain which carries the cloth. This 
chain is endless, and starting at the point where it begins its 
upward travel, it goes to the top of the machine where it passes 
around a roll and between the two top layers of pipes to the front 
end, here around another roll and between the second and third 
layers of pipes, and so on. 

The piece, which is fed from a platform where the operator 
takes his place, is attached to pins fixed at the end of each link of 
the chain and carried along as the chain travels. Immediately 
above the point where the cloth comes in contact with the pins is 
a brush wheel which presses the cloth firmly on the pins. At the 
point where the cloth is fed in, the chain runs over sprocket 
wheels mounted movably on a shaft, so that the two chains may 
be brought nearer together at this point, making it easier to attach 
the cloth. As the chain travels upward the distance between the 
sprockets increases, until at the top of the frame it is full width. 
It will be seen that even should the cloth be narrow in places it is 
stretched to proper width by this means before the actual drying 
process begins. 

The machine is enclosed, the partition usually being placed 
immediately back of the frame where the cloth enters, so that the 
operator is not exposed to the heat. The machine may be driven 



11-i 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



107 



either by a special engine or from the mill shaft, in which case 
cone pulleys are used to regulate the speed. The gears shown at 
the back end, of which there is another set on the other side at the 
front end, are driven through the shaft and gear placed at the 




bottom at the right side. These gears in turn drive the shafts of 
the rolls and sprocket wheels to which they are attached, and with 
them the chain and cloth. A fan is generally fitted in the back 
partition to supply a sufficient amount of fresh air, as by so doing 



115 



108 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

the machine may be driven at a much higher speed than otherwise. 

After the cloth has passed the entire length and come to the 
front for the last time, it is taken off the pins and passed under 
the platform to the top roll, from which it is folded. 

Recently a new machine has been put on the market to 
extract moisture from goods, preparatory to the drying or other 
processes. 

Pneumatic Cloth Extractor. This machine, illustrated in 
Fig. A, is entirely different from any previous type of machine 




Fig. A. Stiner's Pneumatic Cloth Extractor. 

and may be used for various purposes in the finishing room. The 
goods are taken roughly folded from the washers and run through 
this machine open -width, the water being extracted by means of a 
vacuum pump. A three-inch stationary brass cylinder having a 
slot cut lengthwise on top, extends across the machine and is con- 
nected to the pump. The cloth passes over this cylinder and by 
action of the vacuum pump much of the moisture is drawn from 
the cloth, passing through the cylinder into a discharge pipe. For 
ordinary work the vacuum is maintained at from 10 to 15 inches, 
but this may be varied by means of a regulator attached to the 



116 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 109 

end of the cylinder. Where the goods are to be gigged the vacuum 
is lessened so as to allow them to retain some of the moisture. 

In the regular size machine the slot is 66 inches long, but it 
may be made any length required according to the width of the 
cloth. Two brushes are provided to lay the nap evenly before 
extracting, one to brush the face and the other to brush the back 
of the cloth. A sprinkler attachment is also provided on this 
machine, by the use of which the goods may be given a bath to 
remove all loose alkali or dye; the liquor being drawn from face 
to back. This will leave the goods in a brighter state, and as 
they are extracted open -width there are no cloudy effects. 

The machine may be run at a speed of from twenty-five to 
thirty yards per minute, and leaves the goods in better condition 
than a centrifugal extractor. Any width or weight of goods 
may be extracted without any alterations of the machine being 
necessary. Such a machine may also be used to advantage in 
refinishing, as the goods are wet out open-width, thus removing 
the cause of creases which occur with goods run through the 
washers. A 6-inch single belt will run the countershaft from 
which the machine and pump are driven, the latter also using a 
6-inch belt and the former a 2i-inch belt. No special foundation 
is required for the machine to rest upon. 

DRY=BEATINQ. 

After the goods have been thoroughly dried, the next process 
should be a vigorous dry heating^ and, though fair results may be 
obtained without such treatment, it is sure to give the goods a 
better feel and handle, besides making it much easier for the shear 
to do good work. The process consists simply in beating the. cloth 
after it is dried, to loosen it up and counteract the stiffening effect 
of the water. The long exposure of the goods to moisture tends 
to make the fibres lay flat, and if, as on face goods, they have been 
subjected to a vigorous wet-gigging and steaming process, the 
fibres become pasted down to such an extent that unless properly 
loosened before going to the shear the raising brush will have to 
be put on very hard to raise them. Even then it often happens 
that some of them escaping treatment remain flat, thus giving the 
finished goods an uneven appearance. To prevent this, dry beat- 



117 



110 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

ing is advisable on face goods, though other classes of goods are 
improved to nearly as great an extent. The process of dry beating 
is often performed on an old up-and-down gig, but because of the 
extra handling entailed by its use it is preferable to construct a 
machine especially for the purpose. Such a machine has not as 
yet been put upon the market, probably because some finishers 
omit dry beating and others procure the same result, to a slight 
extent, on the brush. 

BRUSHING. 

After dry beating, the goods should be thoroughly back-burled, 
in order to remove from the back any knots or bunches which may 
have been overlooked in the first burling. They are then ready for 
the brush. Fig. 35 illustrates what is termed a dotihle-acting 
hrushing nnacliine^ which has also a steaming attachment, with the 
cloth all strung on ready for treatment. The view presented is a 
rear-end view showing the operation of the brushes, the left side 
simply having the driving pulley attached to the rear brush shaft. 
The cloth is put in the scray from the back with the number end 
first, thus turning the back of the goods out and the face towards 
the operating brush surface. The cloth is then drawn up in front, 
back of the small brush found there, and over the bar in front of 
the first cloth or delivery roll. The small brush in front acting 
only on the back of the cloth serves to remove flyings and such 
foreign material as may have gathered there. From the first bar 
it goes under and around the delivery roll, and over the three 
small rolls attached to the steamer; one of which is found below, 
the next a trifle above the steaming surface and the third on the 
same level back of the steamer. These rolls serve to keep the 
cloth from coming in contact, not only with the steam box, but 
also with the steaming surface which is covered with cloth, thus 
preventing the covering from being worn and the cloth from 
becoming streaked. The cloth then passes under the wooden roll 
set immediately back of the steaming attachment and up over the 
two application rolls, which are controlled by a worm and gear, 
and can be spread apart or narrowed by this means to increase or 
decrease the contact of the cloth with the brushes. Then the cloth 
goes down to and under a wooden roll set in the frame between 



118 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



111 




119 




^£f^- 




Figs. 36 and 37. Parks and Woolsoii's Siiigle Sliear. 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 113 

the two brushes and up again, passing this time over the two 
application rolls of the rear brush. From there it goes to the take- 
np roll w-hich actuates the cloth and to the top roll, from which it 
is delivered to the folder, either to be folded off or delivered into 
the scray for another run. 

At the brush the goods are generally stitched together with 
one long, or two short wires, it being unnecessary to sew them at 
this point. The steam is turned on and the brush started up, the 
goods getting the beneficial action of both steam and brush. They 
are then ready for the shearing process, which is in many respects 
the most important operation in the whole process of dry finishing. 

SHEARING. 



/7'C<?T>;£.<^ 



Rotary Shears. Figs, 36 and 37 illustrate one of the latest (S^z^/^iA/i^ 
improved rotary shears equipped with what is termed the list ' 

saving rest. The belting for these machines is shown in Figs, 38 
and 39. Fig, 40 shows the rotary shear with the plain rest. Fig. 
41 represents a double shear which is designed to afford means of 
doing double the amount of work with but one attendant. 

Handling of Goods. The piece being nicely folded w^ith the 
first end, or the end which usually carries the number, on top and 
the face from the operator in order to have the face out when run- 
ning over the machine, it is then thrown into the scray at the 
back, and the first end drawn through as shown in Fig. 42. W^hile 
it is customary to have the number placed at the front end during 
the first operation, that of burling, it is not arbitrary, depending 
as it does upon the whim of the superintendent. To one accus- 
tomed to it there is no difficulty in stringingon the piece correctly, 
but as it takes some time to become accustomed, it is always well 
to look the machine over to make sure that no mistake has been 
made. After the piece is strung on correctly, the ends are sewed 
together carefully, either by hand or machine. If by hand care 
must be taken to make small even stitches in order that a smooth 
seam may result, as it is possible to run the seam closer to the 
blades and thus save a little from the head ends which must after- 
wards be cut off. A few inches saved on each piece will make a 
yearly total well worth considering. 



121 



114 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



Description. The dotted line shows the path of the cloth 
through the shear. It first passes over the front rod A. This is 
convenient to the hand of the operator, where he can see that the 
cloth goes into the machine straight and free from wrinkles. 




Fig. 38. Left Side Belting. 

From there it passes under the idle rolls B and C and over the 
draft roll D. The draft roll D draws the cloth from the scray U 
beneath the machine, pulling on the back of the goods so that the 
nap on the face is not displaced: from there it passes over the 
brush rest F, where the raising brush E raises the nap so that it 
stands perpendicular to the face of the goods, in a fit condition for 
shearing. The nap of the cloth always points toward the front 
of the shear away from the blades, and the raising brush, revolving 
in the direction shown by the arrow, will therefore cause the nap 



133 




5 ^ 
a: P^ 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



115 



to stand up straight. The brush G is a flock brush which cleans 
the back of the cloth from threads and flocks before it goes over 
the rest H, where the fly blade I revolving against the stationary 
knife Y cuts off the nap from the face of the goods. The screw 




Pig. 39. Right Side Belting. 

X adjusts the cutting edge of the blades to or from the rest so 
that the nap may be clipped to the proper depth. The blades may 
be swung back from the rest around the pivot W by lifting on the 
handle Y, this being necessary when a sewing, uniting two cuts of 
cloth, passes over the rest. The swab Z is a strip of leather satu- 
rated with oil, resting against the blades to lubricate them. From 
the rest the cloth passes over the adjustable guide rolls J and K 
and the stationary idle rolls M and N., which apply the face of the 
goods to the laying brush L. This brush lays the nap again and 



123 



116 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



frees the face of the goods from flocks. From there the goods pass 
over the draft roll Q and idle rolls O and P, to the small draft roll 
on the folder E. The swinging folder S lays the goods in folds, 
as it descends from the rolls E. into the scray U, where it passes 
under the machine for another cut, or to the folding tahle T, when 
it is not to be sheared again. 

All the brushes have suitable jiock pans beneath them to 
catch the flocks, and the blades also have a large flock pan beneath 




1 1, iO Cuitis & Maible Single Sheir 

them to catch the fine flocks cut from the face of the goods. Fig. 
43 illustrates the shear blades, both the revolver and ledger blade, 
separately and assembled. 

Operation. Regarding the shearing process proper, i.e., the 
actual operation of the blades, several conditions must receive at- 
tention. On the first run the nap should be only slightly trimmed; 
to what extent can only be decided by the careful judgment of the 
shearer himself, as different fabrics require different treatment. 



124 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



117 




196 



118 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



When all the nap is on the goods it is of uneven length, and the 
greatest amount of work is required from the shear, therefore it 
must not be overloaded at this time. 

Blades. When in good condition the shear runs lightly and 
noiselessly, showing that the blad.es do not press against each other 




Fig. 42. End View of Shear. 

any harder than is actually necessary for cutting purposes. It is 
clear that under these conditions it will not take much to spread 
the blades apart so that they will not cut at all, and this is often 
caused by crowding more nap into the blades than they can prop- 
erly handle. Sometimes it is assumed that the blades are dull 
because they do not perform all the work expected from them, 
when the trouble is caused entirely by overcrowding. Another 
indication that more is being expected from the blades than can 
be properly done, is the carrying along of flocks by the revolver, 
which throws them over in front onto the cloth, to be again taken 



IM 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



119 



up by the blades. Nothing will spoil the cutting qualities of a 
shear faster than this, and it should be stopped at once by setting 
off the blades. As the accumulation of flocks back of the cylinder 
must also be avoided, their frequent removal is necessary. 

After the blades are set as the shearer's judgment determines, 
the shear may be started up and sufiicient cloth run so as to see 
just how much is being taken off. During the first run the nap 






Fig. 43. Shear Blades. 



is cut to a comparatively even length, and for the second run the 
blades may be let down two or three notches, according to the 
thickness of the nap. Of course the nap is thicker close to the 
cloth and the blades should be regulated accordingly. If the nap 
is at all thick it is not advisable to turn down more than two 
notches, and as the shearing progresses it is better to go even more 
slowly, giving an occasional run without letting down any. The 
goods should be vKitclied closely as they are being sheared to see 
that they are running smoothly and without wrinkles. The blades 
are lifted when the seam comes up so as to allow the seam and 
that part upon which the number is placed to pass without shear- 



127 



120 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

ing; if the blades were not lifted the seam would be cut. The seam 
is run as closely as possible to the blades so as not to waste cloth. 
The raising and lowering of the blades must be done quickly, but 
without jarring, otherwise the parts would be likely to get out of 
true and damage would result. 

There are many persons who hold that shearing is an exceed- 
ingly simple operation, but a man to be a good shear tender, must 
like and study his work in order that he may know how to remedy 
any difficulties which arise. A boy may be able to start and stop 
the machine, lift up and let down the blades, turn the notches up 
or down, etc., but that will not make a good shearer of him unless 
he is a close student of his work. The best position for a shearer 
to stand is at the side of the shear next to the shipper handle, be- 
cause he should be close to shipper handle, and any irregularities 
in shearing may be noticed more readily from the side than in 
front. If for any reason the shear refuses to cut properly it should 
be stopped immediately and the fault remedied, or permanent 
damage may result, for when the blades refuse to cut the nap there 
is great danger of its being pulled out. 

Tension. The tension on the goods must also be carefully 
attended to, for the tighter they run over the rest, the harder it is 
to clear them out properly, if they are to be close-finished. On 
the other hand, it will not do to have them run too loosely, espe- 
cially on such threadbare goods as worsteds, etc., because there is 
then danger of cutting at the edges, even if the shear is provided 
with list saving motion. A good test for tension is to place the 
hand on the goods at about the middle of the blade rest, and if on 
bearing down slightly a slight wrinkle is caused, the tension is 
right for average work. If a w^rinkle appears only under heavy 
pressure the tension should be lessened, and if the wrinkle appears 
too easily the tension should be increased. There are times when 
the goods must be drawn as tightly as possible in order to shear 
them at all, but such cases should not occur often, and are a sure 
indication that something is radically wrong at some other place. 
These directions apply only to the solid rest shears, it being neces- 
sary to meet different conditions for the rubber rest shears, as will 
be explained later. 



1138 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



121 



Tension Device. The tension is governed by a device attached 
to the shaft of the take-iip roll as illustrated in Fig. 44. A is a 
gear having a plate in its center about 9 inches in diameter, and 
is mounted loosely on the shaft against a collar D, which is rigid 
on the shaft. Immediately in front of the plate a slot is cut 






A 


ft-C 


W//M.- 


'///ASV^ 


•Iffffr-ffri 




Y/m 


>1 
D 








E 

□ 



Fig. 44. Tension Device. 

through the shaft, into which the key E fits, projecting on both 
sides. A leather plate C, 8 inches in diameter, is then placed over 
the shaft against the plate of gear A, and after adjusting, the key 
plate B is also put on the shaft, and pressed against C in such a 
way that the key slips into the slots cut for this purpose. The 
collar H which also has slots for the key is next put on, and finally 
the hand wheel G which serves as the locking device, being threaded 
to fit thread on end of shaft, is screwed on the end of the shaft 
pressing the several pieces together. By this it will be seen that 
if G is screwed on hard the whole becomes almost as one piece, 



129 



122 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

while if G is loosened the pressure against the plate is lessened 
and the roll will not turn quite as fast as the gear A. 

The List=Saving Rest, or, as more commonly known, the 
"list motion", is a rather intricate mechanism, requiring careful 
attention to get good results. It consists of a great many pieces 
forming, when assembled, a mechanism which will follow the edge 
of the cloth automatically in whatever position it may run. As 
the name implies, it serves the purpose of saving the list not only 
from being cut, but also from being sheared, this being considered 
undesirable on most goods. 

Construction. The motion, as illustrated in Fig. 45, is com- 
posed as follows: A is the frame stand; B, the main shaft of 
shear; C, the bevel gear shaft; D, the eccentric; E, the eccentric 
connections; F, the connecting links; G, the ratchet; H, the 
ratchet catch; Il\ the inner serrated plate attached to R; IP, the 
loose outer serrated plate;* I, rest proper; J, sections of list protect- 
ing surface of rest; K, sliding bar with cam-shaped spline, L; M, 
finger attached to sliding bar to hold feeler catches; and 'N, the 
guard plate. 

Operation. The bevel gear shaft C, M'hich derives its power 
from the main shaft B, is attached at its upper end to the eccentric 
D, which in turn is attached to the connecting rod E. The short 
connecting rod F is pivoted to the point indicated near its center, 
and being connected Math E at its lower end and with the long 
connecting rod at its upper end, when the machine is started up 
these links will have a reciprocating motion imparted to them. 
As the eccentric point D is movable, this reciprocating motion 
may be varied according to the position of D. The nearer this 
is set to the center the shorter the stroke, and vice versa. The 
long connecting link F extends from the short link on both sides 
to the ratchet G, which is fastened to the link F, in this way im- 
parting motion to the ratchet. This is the foundation of the list 
motion as it 0]3erates on both sides of the machine. The remainder 
of the machine may be in action, but the "rest" may as well be 
of one solid piece if the ratchet fails to work. 

The list-protecting surface of the rest is composed of from 
thirty to fifty separate sections of steel which are finished so uni- 
formly that- when properly set together, they form an unbroken 



ISO 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



123 




181 



124 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

surface like one piece. These sections are grooved on the front 
side^to receive the cam-shaped spline L, attached to the sliding 
bar K, the position of which may be traced by the dotted lines. 
This spline, as shown, extends diagonally from the lower end of 
the sliding bar to the upper at about its center, and consequently 
the several sections of the rest on the inside are higher than those 
on the outside, the inner sections being on the same level as the 
solid part of the rest. 

As the cloth passes over the rest under moderate tension, any 
part of it passing over the lower part of the rest will be so far 
away from the cutting point as to pass without being touched. 
In order that only the list shall pass over the depressed part, the 
finger M, which is attached to the center of the sliding bar, comes 
down over the ratchet and carries . at its end the feeler catches 
attached at such points as H, II\ and H\ The part H, to which 
the serrated part 11^ is attached, has on the end next to ratchet G 
an upper and lower jaw which may engage with either set of teeth 
in ratchet G, as indicated at G^ and G". The upper set of teeth 
G^ will take the feeler catch outward and with it the finger M and 
the sliding bar. The spline L, on the sliding bar, will then raise 
the several pieces through which it passes to their proper places. 
The feeler catch H and. its serrated plates will, by their own weight, 
drop into the lower teeth of ratchet G^, and be moved inward. 
The movement of the cloth will lift the serrated plates, and as 
long as only the edge of the cloth is in contact will hold them 
sufiiciently in suspension to keep them from coming in contact 
with either set of teeth in ratchet G, and thus they will remain 
stationary. If the edge of the cloth moves outward over the feeler 
catches, the contact becomes sufficient to raise the feeler catches 
and engaging them in G^ move outward to the edge of the cloth. 
When the strain on the feeler catches is released, either by reason 
of the edge of the cloth moving inward or the feeler catches com- 
ing to the edge of the cloth, they drop at once and engage with G\ 

Adjustment. Each side of the shear has a separate list-sav- 
ing device independent of the other, except that both are driven 
by the rod F. The guard plate JST is put on simply to protect the 
working parts from flocks, and from coming in contact with the 
cloth. The many sections composing the rest must be kept clean. 



132 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 125 

and should be so adjusted as to work easily without being loose. 
If they are loose the chances are that the goods will not shear as 
closely as on the other parts of the rest, and if too tight the cloth 
will pass over the feeler catches without being able to operate them, 
or if going the other way they will not follow the cloth fast enough 
to prevent it from being sheared. 

It was formerly the opinion, and is now to some extent, that 
the list motion should be kept thoroughly oiled, but it has been 
proven by experience that flake graphite is a superior lubricant 
for the purpose because it does not collect dust. The best way to 
use graphite for this purpose is to shake the pieces with graphite 
and then replace them, not wiping off the superfluous graphite. As 
the sections are all numbered, there is no chance of replacing them 
incorrectly. The spline should also be well dusted before being 
placed in position. The bar which is placed on top of the cloth 
to keep it in contact with the feeler catches requires careful adjust- 
ment to obtain good results. If it bears on too heavily, the feeler 
catches are engaged too much and keep working outward, thus 
allowing the list to be sheared or even cut; and if it does not bear 
on enough the feeler catches will fall, and the bar travel inward, 
leaving a strip of cloth inside the list unsheared. If the above 
precautions are taken there should be no trouble experienced in 
obtaining good results from the list motion. 

Grinding and Fixing. To gain a thorough idea of the fixing 
necessary to be done on a shear, it is best to begin with the grind- 
ing and follow through all the operations until the shear should be 
ground again. Nearly every finisher has a system of his own when 
grinding, but however much the systems differ the principles and 
results desired remain the same. 

Operation. First run out all the cloth, then remove and 
clean the swab, and after thoroughly cleaning the flocks, etc., from 
the revolver, remove that also. Next carefully clean the ledger 
blade and apply the straight edge to test it for evenness. It rarely 
occurs that the blade is uneven if the shear has been properly 
handled, unless the blade has soft plcices or imperfections which 
cause it to wear unevenly. Assuming that it was found to be 
even, test it to see if it is adjusted to the rest so as to bear evenly 
all across. If at any point it does not bear as heavily as it should. 



133 



126 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

turn in the lower screw in the bed-plate until the blade binds evenly 
everywhere. When this adjustment is as it should be, cover the 
rest and list motion carefully to protect them from the emery, and 
replace the revolver. Then loosen a trifle the upper row of screws, 
which adjust the ledger to the revolver, evenly all the way across 
and drop the revolver one -half a turn. Cross the revolver belt, 
remove the other belts and disconnect the list motion, as there is 
no necessity of running any other part of the machine than the 
revolver, which is run in the reverse direction. I^^ext start the 
machine and apply to the revolver a mixture made up of oil and 
emery, on a strap about 12 inches long by 4 inches wide, moving 
this briskly from side to side in order to distribute the mixture 
evenly. This mixture is made up of good lard, or neatsfoot oil, 
with equal proportions of flour of eirlery, and No. 120. It should 
not be too thick nor applied in too great quantities. 

In order to distribute the mixture most evenly on the revolver 
apply the strap at a different place each time, i.e., first at one end, 
then at the other, and next the middle, etc. After a thorough appli- 
cation draw the blades together by means of the top row of screws 
at the back; this must be done evenly, or uneven grinding will 
result. The best way is to draw up one side screw first, then the 
other side screw, next the middle, and finally the quarter screws. 
This process of applying emery and drawing the blades together 
is repeated until the grinding reaches the edge of the ledger blade, 
giving each application plenty of time to work in order to insure 
good results. When the edge is turned forward all across the 
ledger blade, a mixture of oil and flour of emery is used, without 
the No. 120, running this for about ten minutes. If by testing 
with dry tissue paper the latter is cut clean at every point across 
the blades, the use of emery may be discontinued, otherwise con- 
tinue grinding until such is the case. Now clean the strap and 
apply oil for about ten minutes, and then draw up the revolver 
about a quarter turn and run for about five minutes with a further 
application of oil alone, this finishing the grinding process. 

After grinding, clean the whole machine thoroughly, the re- 
volver being removed for the purpose, so as to make sure of the 
complete removal of the emery, which is thrown about a good deal 
during the grinding process. Then hone the ledger blade by ap- 



a84 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 127 

plying the well oiled hone to the blade, with the lower end from 
two to two and one-half inches away from the blade so as to make 
an angle of about 70 degrees. This will turn back the feather 
edge, which has been turned to the front during the grinding. 
Keplace the revolver and turn one or two revolutions in the cutting 
direction to cut off the feather edge, and the shear is ready for 
operation. It will now be found by trial that the blades will cut 
fine wet tissue paper. The practice of grinding until the blades 
will cut fine M'et tissue paper before honing the ledger blade is not 
to be encouraged, as it is necessary to grind off the feather edge 
before the paper may be cut, and after the blade is honed another 
edge will be turned which also must be cut off. By doing this 
the blade is worn out faster than is necessary. While any uneven- 
ness in the revolver is seldom found, it should be tested occasion- 
ally with the straight edge, and also at either end with calipers to 
see that both ends wear alike. Apply the straight edge to the 
ledger blade both before and after grinding. 

When the shear is properly operated, the ledger blade is not often 
found to be uneven, unless it contains imperfections which allow 
it to wear faster at some points than others, but if it is found to 
be uneven before grinding it must be evened first. If the ends 
are higher than the middle they will bear more heavily against the 
rest, and adjustment in that position will eventually destroy the 
alignment of all the- parts. When for this reason it is necessary 
to grind down the blade the end screws only are used to bring the 
blade in contact with the revolver; while if on the other hand it 
is high in the middle, only the middle screw is drawn down. The 
harder the two blades are drawn together the more will be ground 
off, but the work must be done slowly to prevent unduly heating 
the blades. 

When grinding, the revolver, ledger blade, and rest must 
always be ^e^i jxirallel, with the rest centered as nearly as possible 
under the revolver. This may be tested by placing a try-square 
against the mark found at the inner end of the empty revolver-box, 
and bringing against it the end of the straight edge placed on the 
ledger blade. If they meet squarely, the adjustment is correct. 

When setting \ip a new shear or replacing refitted blades, 
first put on the shear the blade frame which carries the blade, and 



135 



128 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

insert the center stay bolt, but turn this in only part way. Then 
adjust the cutting edge of the blade parallel to the rest, with both 
ends equally high, and screw down the stay-bolts moderately tight. 
Now replace the revolver and adjust the blades to it equally by 
means of the top row of screws, at the same time tightening the 
lower row of screws until they touch the bed. This done, carry 
out the grinding process as previously explained. 

A simple way of testing the adjustment of the ledger blade 
to the rest, is by setting the ledger about J^ -inch from the rest and 
balancing a penny on each end, when by sighting across, the pitch 
of the pennies will indicate what change if any is needed. After 
adjusting for height, test for distance by using as a gauge the blade 
of a pocket knife, or some similarly tapering instrument, to insert 
and slide across between the rest and the ledger blade. Any vari- 
ation will be shown by the varying amount of binding. Some- 
times a smooth wooden wedge is used for the same purpose when, 
by marking it at the first point, any variation is indicated by the 
different depths 'to which it may be inserted. Adjust the blade to 
the rest by moving the carriage in w^hatever direction required. 

AnotJier successful method of grinding is as follows: After 
proper preparation as previously described, draw up the revolver 
one-quarter turn, instead of setting the ledger blade to the revolver 
as in the former method. Apply the emery in the same manner 
as before and run a few minutes, then let the revolver down one- 
quarter turn, applying more emery as required, and run in this 
position for about half an hour. Then lower the revolver another 
quarter turn and, after running in this position for about fifteen 
minutes, test the blades with a strip of newspaper. If the news- 
paper is cut clean all across, continue grinding, using flour of 
emery and oil for fifteen minutes and then finish by running with 
oil alone for half an hour. Now hone the ledger blade, clean the 
machine, and otherwise make it ready for operation in the usual 
manner. 

As the ledger Made wears down to the thicker portion, the 
bevel at the grinding point becomes larger, bringing too much 
surface of the blades in contact, and consequently the blades run 
harder and tend to make more noise. This may be remedied as 
follows: When getting ready to grind, after observing the usual 



180 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 129 

precautions as to adjustment, replace the revolver jn the boxes and 
fasten down the caps. Then loosen the top row of screws about 
half a turn and let the revolver down one full turn on the top 
screw, or if the bevel is excessively large a turn and a half is not 
too much. This being done test the blades with a piece of tissue 
paper to find how hard they bear against each other. As 
the paper should pass between them easily, by holding it f' 
in one hand and turning; the revolver with the other, the 
evenness of adjustment at all points may be determined and 
regulated accordingly. When adjusted correctly, grind as 
before, using No. 120 emery, or coarser if the amount of 
bevel requires it; drawing the blades together gradually 
in order to avoid the heating caused by overcrowding. 
By carefiil observation it will be noticed that the cutting 
edge of the ledger, which at first is some distance from the 
revolver, comes closer at each drawing of the blades, until 
when the heel is sufliciently ground off, the two blades 
come almost in contact. At this point, on removing the re- 
volver, the back of the ledger blade will appear as at Fig. 
4G. Reducing; the amount of bevel relieves the blades 
from excessive contact, allowing them to run more easily 
and with less noise. 

The revolver, when replaced is drawn to within one- 
quarter turn of its former position and the blades are 
sharpened in the usual manner. After repeated grinding, pjg^ 40, 
however, the ledger blade wears down to such an extent -^^if^g 
that it becomes necessary to grind it down on the front. 
The reason for this is that all the blades of the shear, the ledger 
blade as well as the knives of the revolver, are only partially steel, 
the remainder being a reinforcement of iron. On the ledger 
blade this iron, which is in front, is easily distinguished by the 
different appearance, as the steel, which extends about one-half 
inch from the edge, shows brighter than the remainder, which is 
iron. It will also be noticed that the front of the ledger has a 
very long bevel. This serves two purposes, one of which is to 
expose the steel so that the iron will not come in contact with the 
knives of the revolver, and the other is to alloM' a free passage of 
the cloth between the blade and the rest. 



137 



130 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

Shear Grinder. When the steel face becomes so worn down 
as to expose the iron, the shear will not cut and it becomes neces- 
sary to "face" the blade. The machine illustrated at Fig. 47 is 
used for this purpose. This machine is provided with a cast-iron, 
cylinder which is ground to a uniform diameter, and is fitted with 
rests to hold the ledger with its frame, and the revolver. The 
ledger frame is placed in the top rests which are shown in the 
illustration as having hand-wheels attached, and the revolver is 
placed in the front rests which are similarly shown. The blade 
is so adjusted on the machine as to have the cylinder strike it far 
enough back of the old bevel to expose sufficient steel on comple- 
tion of the grinding. The blade must be brought in contact with 
the cylinder evenly, and the grinding continued gradually until 
the edge is reached, using No. 120 emery mixed with good oil. If 
the bevel at the cutting part is too large it may be reduced in this 
operation by striking in a little deeper at the beginning and con- 
tinuing the grinding a little longer. In this way the bevel in 
front is retained sufficiently large to allow the free passage of the 
cloth. A material saving may be effected in large establishments 
with one of these machines, by having on hand an extra set of 
blades with which to replace any needing attention, thus keeping 
the machines in constant operation. 

The revolver knives being reinforced with iron similarly to 
the ledger blades, will also wear down so as to require attention. 
This occurs at the short bevel on the back of the knife, and is " 
remedied by the operation of " backing off", when the revolver is 
placed in a lathe and'sufficient iron removed to insure good cutting 
qualities. As this process is a slow and tedious one, it is usually 
done more cheaply as well as better by the machine builders. 
When the desired amount of iron is removed the revolver is 
ground evenly on the grinder; and then both revolver and ledger 
blade, after being properly adjusted on the shear, are ground in 
the regular manner. 

The ledger blade must be set carefully in combination with 
the rest or bad shearing is sure to result. The cutting edge of the 
blade should be just barely visible when the machine is in opera- 
tion, therefore the thickness of the goods governs the height to 



138 




X 
< 

H 
H 

<! 

O 

g 

Q 
iJ 

O 

X 

o 



K J3 

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H 

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a 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



131 



which the blade must be set. If the blade is set too high, it is 
liable to nip the cloth; and if too low, to scrape it. 

Sometimes after grinding the blades will rattle, and in such 
case either the ledger may be slackened a trifle at the ends, or the 
bevel may be honed a little at the ends, as a preventive. If the 
blades fail to cut at the ends, the remedy is to draw up on the 
conical screw found at the end just underneath the revolver 
journal boxes. 

Adjusting. After a shear is ground properly it should run 
easily, and almost noiselessly, because, as the blades are sharp, it is 




Fit"-. 47. Parks & Wools-on Shear Griuder. 



not necessary to draw them together tightly, and thus create fric- 
tion. Some shears, however, will always make a certain amount 
of noise even through the friction between the blades is reduced to 
a minimum. This is due to the knives of the revolver increasincr 
the volume of noise by exerting a fan-like action on the air, and 
is always more noticeable in connection with revolvers fitted with 
a small number of knives. As the different makes of revolvers 
vary little in diameter, it is apparent that when the knives are few 
in number they will be farther apart and a greater fan -like action 
will result. 

Shipping^ i.e., leaving the nap uncut in spots, is a fault oc- 
casionally met with in the operation of the shear immediately after 



139 



132 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

grinding. The usual cause is that the blades have not settled into 
their proper place after honing and cleaning, and the fault would 
soon remedy itself if it were not for the nap getting between the 
blades and spreading them. Sometimes it is caused by overcrowd- 
ing the blades in starting up, thus spreading them too far apart. 
The best remedy is to ease up a little on the " heel" of the ledger 
blade; the heel being the back edge of the bevel caused by grinding. 
By moving the revolver forward and upward it is taken out of con- 
tact with the blade at the heel, and caused to bind a little more at 
the cutting edge. This improves the cutting qualities without 
causing the revolver to run any harder. Adjust the revolver in 
the required position by drawing up one-quarter turn on the ad- 
justing screws, which pass through lugs in the frame into the 
revolver journal boxes, after first loosening the journal binding 
screws. After adjustment, reset these screws, and on starting up 
the shear ' the skipping will be found to have been corrected. 
Sometimes skipping is corrected by drawing the blades together, 
but it is not advisable to do this before it is made necessary by 
the wearing of the blades. Some shearers contend that the blades 
will not cut clear unless closely drawn together, but with the one 
exception of shearing mixed goods it is not so. It is, on the con- 
trary, a disadvantage, because the revolver rans much harder, and 
grinding is required more frequently. If drawing together is 
deemed advisable it should be done evenly all the way across, not 
only at the point where the skipping occurs, as is done in some 
mills. Blades so treated soon become unevenly worn, because of 
the uneven setting, and require the expenditure of much time and 
labor, as w^ell as much "blade" to rectify the trouble. 

Care of Shear. To obtain the best results from the shear, 
some system of attention must be followed out, and the system 
here presented has been proven a good one. The first time 
the blades require attention remove the revolver and hone the 
ledger blade. The next time, strop the revolver with oil for about 
ten minutes. The revolver is of course run in the opposite direc- 
tion during this operation and is kept from contact M-ith the ledger, 
by inserting a piece of thick strawboard under each journal box. 
By alternating in this manner and drawing the blades together 
only slightly as required, the shear may be kept running contiuu- 



140 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 133 

onsly for eighteen months in the best condition, Another good 
system to follow is to hone the ledger blade once in two weeks, and 
strop the revolver once a month. This treatment also should keep 
the shear in good running order for from twelve to eighteen months. 

S]?reading of the Hades is often caused by overcrowding, i.e., 
by trying to shear off too much nap on the first run. When this 
happens all that can be done is to draw the blades together again, 
but the trouble is that much more drawing together is required 
than would otherwise be necessary. A seam coming up unno- 
ticed will, beside becoming cut itself, spread the blades. They are 
sometimes injured by this cause to such extent as to require 
grinding. This never happens when the shear tender is wide 
awake, and giving the necessary amount of attention to his work. 

Defective Work. When, during the shearing process, it is 
found that the edges of the cloth are not being sheared as closely 
as the middle, the condition of the blades should first be ascer- 
tained. If the blades are found to be in good condition, the 
trouble is probably caused by flocks gathering in back of the sec- 
tions of the list motion. The remedy is to clean and lubricate 
the latter as described previously. With solid or plain rest shears, 
the only place to look for fault is in the blades. Poor shearing in 
the middle with good work at the ends is usually caused by the 
take-up friction being set too tightly. This being the case, the 
take-up roll tends to draw or take up more cloth than is fed in by 
the delivery roll, because with a tight friction the surface speed of 
the take-up roll exceeds that of the delivery roll. Should it not 
be possible to adjust the friction correctly, it should be taken 
apart and cleaned thoroughly, especially the leather disk which 
fits between the two plates. This should be rubbed well with 
gasoline, which will clean off the dirt and grease. On reassem- 
blino; the device the trouble will be found to have ceased. 

o 

Oiling. With reference to oiling there is a great variety of 
opinions, as to the kind of oil to be used, quantity, and method of 
application. The blades are oiled by means of a swab of felt or 
leather, which is saturated with oil to the desired extent. This 
swab, which is four or five inches wide, is attached to a wooden 
roll resting in lugs attached at the side of the revolver boxes, and 
covers the top of the revolver. The oil passes from the swab to 



141 



134 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

the revolver, which in turn conveys it to the ledger blade. If too 
much oil is applied to the swab it is carried along and runs to 
waste down the front of the ledger blade. The spaces between the 
knives of the revolver gradually become filled with flocks, which 
are first collected by the surplus of oil, but as they increase in 
quantity they absorb^ the oil and serve as a reservoir. For this 
reason it is well to allow the flocks to remain as they collect. 
Another reason is that in the event of any part of the blade 
becoming heated because of excessive friction, the oil will immedi- 
ately run to such part, thus lessening the friction. 

It should not be necessary to apply oil to the swab more than 
twice a day, because the fact of the blades running so hard as to 
require more oil is sufiicient evidence that they are dull, and 
require grinding. One exception to the foregoing statement is 
in the case of shearing cloth composed of mixed cotton and wool 
yarn. The more cotton the cloth contains the harder it is to shear, 
because cotton fibre is not cut as easily as wool. This does not 
apply to goods which contain all cotton yarn, as no difiiculty will 
be experienced with these; but with mixed goods it is sometimes 
necessary to oil for every piece. The oil should never be applied 
in sufiicient quantities as to run down the front of the ledger blade. 

The quality of the oil must also be considered. It should 
have good body, and be free from the tendency to gum. Some of 
the different oils used are castor oil, double refined lard oil, sperm 
oil and neatsfoot oil. The chief advantage of castor oil is the 
body, and in the winter this becomes a disadvantage. In winter 
white sperm oil is the best if pure, but unfortunately it may seldom 
be obtained, and then is usually too expensive. Pure lard oil may 
be easily obtained, but it has not sufiicient body to recommend its 
use, especially on fine goods. Neatsfoot oil, even if not double 
refined, has all the essential qualities for a good shear oil, being of 
good body and having been proved by experience to be free from 
tendency to gum. Five gallons of this oil should be sufiicient to 
supply one shear for a year. If more is used it is wasted or the 
shear is not kept in good condition. 

Oil strealxs in the cloth result from various causes, but one of 
the most prolific is the gathering upon the ledger blade of the 
flocks, which are held there by an excess of oil. As the coating 



142 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 135 

of flocks on the blade becomes thicker they come in contact with 
the cloth, which becomes streaked with oil at the point of contact. 
For this reason the ledger blade should be kept clean. The 
reverse holds good with regard to the revolver, for the flocks gath- 
ered there retain the oil and prevent its reaching the ledger in 
sufficient quantities to cause trouble. As a proof of this, it has 
been found by investigation that in mills where the trouble 
occurred to the greatest extent it was the custom to clean thor- 
oughly every part of the shear once a week. 

Brushes. The setting of the brushes governs to a great 
extent the operation of the blades, and incidentally the quality of 
the work produced. The raising brush especially should be con- 
sidered. On the flrst run it should be so set of? from the cloth as 
to just lightly raise the nap, thus preventing the overcrowding of 
the blades. As the goods are sheared down, the brush is set up a 
little closer, until when the last notch is turned down on the blades, 
the brush is set to bring up the last fibres. It makes a great differ- 
ence in the appearance of the cloth whether or not this is done, espe- 
cially on face goods. When the cloth is being sheared more 
closely on one edge than on the other and the blades are found to 
be in good condition, it will be found on testing that the raising 
brush is bearing unevenly. To test this, slip off the driving belt 
of the brush, turn the brush by hand a few revolutions, and then 
start up the cloth a few inches ahead of the mark left by turning 
the brush. Any irregularity of setting will then become apparent 
by the nap. Unevenness of the brush itself will cause the same 
trouble, and the only remedy is to have it evened up. 

The hach brush should not be set on too hard or it will take 
ofp more than is intended. This brush is for the purpose of 
removing flocks and flyings which may have gathered on the 
back of the goods, and which if allowed to remain would cause 
holes to be cut in the cloth when passing over the rest. For this 
reason the back brush should be set to bear lightly. Too close 
setting will cause the brush to remove other fibres which are not 
as solid on the back as on the face, thus quickly filling the flock 
pan. Unless this is kept cleaned out the brush will carry the 
flocks around and back onto the cloth, resulting in flock holes 
when the cloth reaches the rest. Greasy flocks dropping on the 



148 



136 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

brushes often cause bad streaks, and should be avoided. During 
the grinding the brushes should be well protected from the flying 
oil and emery. All the brushes should be turned end for end at 
least once in two months to insure even wearing, and they should 
be thoroughly cleaned at least once a week. 

Rubber Rest Shear. The latest and most improved type of 
shearing machine is the rubber rest shear, as illustrated in Fig. 48. 
As may be easily noticed it does not differ radically from the ordi- 
nary type in the running parts other than in the cutting arrange- 
ments. Fig. 49 shows the manner of operating the cutting part 
by means of a lever, including the frame in which the revolver box 
is set. The journal box consists of one piece, which is slipped over 
the revolver shaft, and held in its place in the frame by means of 
the cap on top. A sectional view of the cutting arrangement is 
given in Fig. 50, showing clearly the w^ay in which the revolver 
comes in contact with the ledger blade. The tube A, as shown, is 
laid in the groove of the rest and held firmly in place by the apron 
C, tracing cloth being the best fabric for this purpose. The broken 
line B, shows the threading of the cloth to be sheared. 

Cutting Mechanism. On the examination of the cutting ar- 
rangement it will be found to differ materially from what has 
already been described. The principles remain the same, but there 
is quite a departure in the method of application, requiring a con- 
sequent amount of study. One of the differences which first be- 
comes apparent is the relative position of the blades. The knives 
of the revolver on the ordinary shear come in contact with the 
ledger blade at an angle of about 45°, but on the rubber rest shear 
the revolver knives strike the ledger almost at right angles^ thus 
bringing the revolver on top of the goods. This is made necessary 
by the use of the rubber tube, because with the blades in the same 
position as in the ordinary shear it would be found impossible to 
set them in close enough to do any shearing. 

There is a great deal of difference between the plain rest and 
the list-saving rest on ordinary shears as to close shearing; the 
goods being cleared out more readily on a plain rest. The reason 
is that the plain rest being sharper, opens the twill better, and the 
fibres between the twills stand out straight and are easily sheared 
off. On the list-saving rest, which is not so sharp, the twill is not 



144 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



137 



opened out to the same extent and many fibres are held down, 
making it necessary to let the blades down lower, and give more 
runs to prodnce equal results. This same difference is found on 
the rubber rest shear to a more marked degree, requiring the 




blades to he let down to a point much lower than would be deemed 
advisable on an ordinary shear. 

Another noticeable difference between the cutting arrange- 
ment of the rubber rest shear and that of the ordinary shear is in 
the number of knives comprising the revolver. The ordinary 
revolver contains from twenty to twenty-six knives, while the re- 



145 



138 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

volver used in connection with the rubber rest has but eight knives. 
The latter, however, is run at a speed of 1,400 revolutions per min- 
ute, as compared with a speed of from 800 to 900 revolutions per 
minute on the ordinary revolver. While in some places this type 
of shear has been condemned because of producing an excessive 
amount of damaged work, it will be found on investigation that 
such trouble has been due to incorrect handling. On close finished 
goods for men's wear, especially worsteds, its value becomes readily 
apparent, and for ladies' dress goods it is beyond question the most 
efficient machine. 

Damage may result from one or more of several sources, but 
is usually due to incorrect setting of the blades, faulty working of 
the friction take-up, or a combination of the two. If the blades 
are correctly set and the other parts as they should be, damage is 
the result of gross carelessness in operation. 

Adjustment. The arrangement for raising the blades, by 
means of a lever on either side, may cause trouble to the shearer 
at first, but continued use will remove this. The carriage can be 
adjusted in any direction by means of screws at either side. The 
rest also may be tipped to suit requirements, but it is well to 
change this only when absolutely necessary. The blades coming 
down on the goods instead of partially sideways makes the danger 
from the revolver striking the goods much greater, and the dam- 
age resulting would be greater than on an ordinary shear. Many fin- 
ishers set the blades so that when the last notches are turned down 
there is a siight tremble or jar to the cloth, caused by the revolver 
striking it. This practice is to be discouraged, however, as it is 
inadvisable to have the revolver come in contact with the goods. 
This is especially true in the case of a rubber rest shear, such 
setting being almost certain to result in damage, for which the 
blame is often laid to the tube. The edge of the ledger blade 
should be set to the center line which is marked on the journal 
box frame at each end, and be kept as near that line as possible. 
Occasional honing will wear the edge back, but the distance should 
not be allowed to exceed -J^ of an inch. The revolver is arranged so 
that it maybe raised out of the way to facilitate handling the ledger. 

To sl4 the Tevolver turn down the notches until it comes 
in contact with the tube, and by means of the adjusting screws 



140 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



139 



set it directly above the center of the tube. If the revolver is set 
too far forward, with the ledger in its proper place, any bunches 
or knots which come up do not have sufficient time to become 
buried in the tube, and are consequently gouged out, leaving holes. 
Holes are also caused by the formation of small blisters, w^hich are 
cut in the same manner. On the other hand, if the blade is set so 
as to be back of the center or highest point of the tube damage is 
sure to result, whether or not there are slugs and bunches in the 
goods. The best results in every way are obtained by adjusting 




Fig. 49. Operating Lever. 

the ledger to the center line of the revolver, then drawing the 
revolver slightly away from the heel of the blade, and setting the 
carriage so as to have the cutting done at the highest point of the 
tube. Keeping the take-up friction clean and properly adjusted 
will obviate any difficulty arising from that source. 

Tension. Incorrect adjustment of the tension is almost as 
prolific a source of trouble, in connection with rubber rest shears, 
as incorrect blade setting, and a little experimenting is usually 
necessary before one unaccustomed to the use of these shears may 
obtain the best results. The goods must be run with rather more 
tension than the moderate amount found to do the best work on 
an ordinary shear. This is necessary in order that the knots and 
bunches may be buried in the tube, to protect them from being 
gouged out. When the tension is insufficient these knots do not 
become buried deep enough, and therefore the rubber rest is not 
allowed to accomplish the purpose for which it is designed. An 



147 



140 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



excessive amount of tension, however, is equally to be avoided, 
because under such conditions the tube is flattened so that the 
sides stand higher than the middle, and if for any reason the list 
motion acts too slowly, both the tube and apron may be cut. The 
thinner and smoother the goods, the more care is necessary in 
shearing them, and the more trouble may be expected. 

Care of Rubber Tube, The tracing cloth apron which retains 
the tube in place is another source of frequent trouble. The con- 
stant friction of the goods on this apron 
causes it to become worn to such an ex- 
tent that the tube breaks through it, 
unless the wearing point is changed fre- 
quently. When it does break through 
the result is either a cut or a closely 
sheared streak, which is almost as bad. 
Thin goods are usually cut, but men's 
wear goods being heavier only become 
sheared closely. To prevent such 
trouble occurring move the tracing 
cloth apron about -| inch as often as a 
new wearing surface becomes necessary, 
Moving for each two pieces is often 
enough for average work, but on hard firmly woven goods Math a 
pronounced twill it is necessary to move it more frequently. In 
extreme cases it is necessary to move it as often as twice for the 
same piece. 

The apron should be put on squarely, and drawn evenly, so as 
to compress the tube equally the whole length. If it is a little- 
loose at one side, the tube expands, causing that edge of the cloth 
to be sheared more closely than the other. As the groove which 
holds the tube is made of metal it is essential that the tube should 
be an exact fit, otherwise it will become displaced whenever the 
apron is moved. One end of it might be at the front side of the 
groove and the other end at the rear side, making it necessary to 
test the setting wuth paper after each change of the apron. In 
case of absolute necessity a small tube may be used temporarily 
by the following means: x\fter removing the apron apply a little 
good glue along the rear side of the groove, replace the tube and 




Fig. 50. Rubber Rest. 



148 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 141 

press it against the rear side of the groove. Then let the blades 
down so as to press lightly upon it and allow to set over night. 
When the apron is replaced good service may be obtained for some 
time, but a tube so set is not to be relied upon, 

A large tube is even worse than a small one because it has to 
be compressed into the groove, thus minimizing the cushion-like 
action which is the reason for its use. ZTncvenness in, the tuhe is 
corrected by various devices in the different makes of machines. 
On one make the tube is compressed by decreasing the width of 
the groove, while on another style the same effect is obtained by 
means of screws in the bottom of the rest. The greatest amount 
of trouble found in connection with the tube is caused by oil get- 
ting on the ends, and tending to disintegrate and destroy the elas- 
ticity of the rubber. For this reason oil should never be used on 
the list-motion in connection with a rubber rest shear; graphite 
serving the purpose much better. 

Oil is also communicated to the tube by dripping from the 
journal-boxes onto the list-motion, and therefore the journal-boxes 
should be wiped off frequently. "When a tube does become injured 
by contact with oil it should be replaced. To do this loosen the 
apron, draw out the old tube and insert the new one, taking care 
the groove is free from dust and flocks. Old tubes may be used 
again by removing the damaged portions and butting two of them 
together with glue; when they will give results equal to a new tube. 

Grinding^ Rubber rest shears are ground in a different way 
than ordinary shears. The construction of the cutting parts is 
such that instead of drawing up the ledger to the revolver, the 
revolver is let down to the ledger. Two screws are set in each 
journal box for this purpose, one on top, and one at the bottom, by 
the use of which the journal boxes are either raised or lowered. 
Raise the revolver out of the way by prying up the journal boxes 
and placing blocks under them, after first removing the box caps. 
The screw in the bottom of the frame upon which the journal box 
rests should not be disturbed. When the revolver is raised, clean 
it thoroughly and adjust the ledger blade to the center line. Then 
let the revolver down and proceed to grind, using all due precau- 
tions to protect the other parts of the machine from the emery and 
oil mixture. Use ISTo. 120 emery at first, then flour of emery and 



149 



142 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

finally pure oil. Let the revolver down gradually by withdrawing 
the bottom adjusting screw and following with the top one. Grind 
to an edge and hone as in other types of shears. 

The arrangement of the cutting parts requires that the ledger 
should have a long thin bevel, and for this reason the progress of 
the grinding must be closely watched to prevent too much being 
ground away. Because of this thinness of blade, the time required 
for grinding is comparatively short, but the application of oil alone 
should be lengthened so as to make it very smooth; and honing 
should take the place of grinding to the greatest possible extent. 
After grinding set the ledger again and adjust the revolver to it. 
The revolver is eased away from the heel of the ledger by drawing 
forward very slightly the frame which carries the journal boxes. 
To reduce an excessive amount of noise from the blades after 
grinding, loosen each end screw by which the ledger blade is at- 
tached to the bed and insert a strip of thick paper between the 
blade and bed. 

If the foregoing precautions are carefully observed no trouble 
should be experienced from the rubber rest shear. On the con- 
trary the quality, and on some goods the quantity, of the work 
done will probably exceed that of an ordinary shear. 

A certain amount of study and attention must be devoted to 
the method of operation by anyone not acquainted with the peculiar 
construction of this type of machine, if the highest quality of work 
is desired. The machine should be kept scrupulously clean with 
the one' exception of the revolver, which should be allowed to re- 
tain the flocks for reasons fully explained in the description of 
ordinary shears. 

STEAM BRUSHING, DEWING OR DAMPENING. 

When the goods have been properly sheared, they are sub- 
jected to a steam hrushing. On face goods this process should not 
be omitted on any consideration, as it leaves the goods in much 
better condition for the next process. The ordinary brushing 
machine with steaming attachment is used for this purpose, and 
the treatment varies with the goods to be operated upon. While 
it is in all cases desirable to subject goods to the brushing and 



160 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



lis 



especially the steam brushing process, it is in many places given 
but scant consideration. 

Brushing, at any time, is of decided advantage to the goods, 
and while it may be deemed advisable to do away with some of it 
on close finished goods, this should never be attempted on face 
goods. There is no process so simple as the brushing, and the 
effect upon the goods is so beneficial that it is a case of mistaken 
economy to curtail its use. On close finished fabrics, one run with 




ii-j. U. Birch's Dewiug Machine. 



or without steam will usually answer the purpose; but on face 
goods at least three or four runs with steam ought to be given. 

The latest machines used to prepare goods at this and other 
stages are the dewing or dampening machines. 

Dewing Machines. In finishing woolen goods, they are 
often subjected to a steaming process while in the dry state. The 
object of this is to impart a certain amount of moisture. In 
many cases it would be better to have the moisture supplied in 
the form of a fine spray of water, as the heat of the steam coun- 
teracts to some degree the beneficial effects of the moisture. For 
this reason dewing machines, which supply the moisture as a fine 
spray, dew-like in effect, are coming into use more every year. 
One of the particular uses for these is to dampen the cloth before 



Ml 



144 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



pressing, as only by such treatment can the best results be secured; 
therefore, the chief requirement of such machines is that the 
moisture be distributed uniformly. In some mills the goods are 




sponged so that they may be sent at once to the cutters; and'a 
dewing machine is found to be of special benefit for this purpose. 
This process removes the press finish and causes the goods to take 



152 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



145 



the natural slirinkage whieli always occurs when the tension from 
pressing, winding, etc., is relieved. 

Operation. Fig. B represents a type of dewing machine 
btiilt by Birch Bros., which has extensive use. The method of 
operation is shown clearly in the cut. Another and somewhat 
later type, that of G. W. Yoelker, is illustrated in Fig. C, a sec- 




Pig. D. End View of Fig. C. 

tion drawing being given at Fig. D. In this machine the water is 

forced through a pipe, which has a narrow slot in it, onto a rapidly 

revolving cylinder, the latter being covered with a fillet composed 

of a rubber foundation with loner bronze wire teeth. The water 

o 

adheres to the teeth as the cylinder revolves until they come in 
contact with a stationary wire comb fixed on an iron rod, which 
lies parallel to the cylinder. When the cylinder wires come in 



153 



146 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



contact with the comb they are caused to vibrate, thus throwing 
off the water in a finely divided state. This action is facilitated 
By the air current which is constantly thrown outward by the 
revolving wires, resulting in a very fine mist. There is no possi- 
ble chance for drops to get upon the cloth and therefore the damp- 
ening is uniform. After dampening, the cloth is wound tightly 
on wooden rolls to allow the moisture to penetrate thoroughly. 




Fig, E. Stiner's Dewing Machine. 

Another type of dewing machii>e, known as Stiner's patent, 
"is shown at Fig. E. The sprinkler arrangement on this machine 
consists of a brass pipe fitted with a number of small valves, or 
jets, each of which carries a screw cap with a small perforation. 
Should one of these jets become clogged at any time it may be 
removed and cleaned independently of the others. As the water 
which is used in the machines is all filtered, there is little chance 
of the jets becoming clogged at any time. 



154 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 147 

The filter which is attached to the machine, is fitted with a 
wire brush so arranged that when any sediment collects on the 
filter screen, the brush may be pushed against the screen, twisted 
around a few times, causing the sediment to drop into a drip pipe 
and pass out into the sewer. On the regular size machine the 
sprinkler attachment has thirty-one jets. Directly under these 
jets are two deflectors or plates, one a stationary plate of sheet 
iron, the other a movable plate of brass. Each plate is perforated 
with thirty-one one-inch holes which come directly under the jets. 
When the machine is stopped, the streams from the jets pass down 
through the holes into the drip pan and thence to the sewer. The . 
movable brass plate is so connected to the shipper that when the 
machine is started it slides over the iron plate far enough to cover 
the holes, and the streams of water striking it are broken up into 
fine spray. 

Each machine is fitted with a water valve pressure regulator, 
by means of Mdiich the amount of dampness is controlled and any 
degree of dampness may be obtained. A pressure of at least fifty 
pounds is required for the successful operation of this machine. 
In mills where the pressure is not so high, a small rotary pump 
may be fitted to increase it. 

When the goods have been brushed, they are given one run 
over either of these latter machines, regulating the moisture to 
suit the requirements. In such cases, the steam at the brushing 
should be omitted. 

PRESSING. 

The goods are now subjected to the operation of pressing. 
While some contend that pressing is the least important of the fin- 
ishing operations, it cannot be denied that it is a very essential proc- 
ess in producing the fine appearance of a perfectly finished fabric. 
Of course various notions prevail, and in recent years the pressing 
has been regulated, to a great extent, by the whims of the buyer 
and commission merchant. There is also a difference of opinion 
among finishers, with reference to the methods to be used for 
different fabrics. Some maintain that finer grades of goods, espe- 
cially face goods, cannot be properly pressed other than in the old- 



155 



148 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



fashioned way of using papers. While this is not the case, the prac- 
tice is still used in some places and a description is necessary. 

Paper Pressing. For the purpose of paper pressing, large 
sheets of a specially finished cardboard, known as press paper, are 

used. The goods if wide are doubled, 
the two selvedges being brought to- 
gether, and then folded nicely, when the 
papers may be inserted. One man can 
do this work alone, but it can be done 
much more economically by two men 
M'orking together. The piece is laid face 
up on a long table, and as one man 
doubles it the other draws it along; and 
folds it. It is then taken to another 
table upon which is laid a small pile of 
the papers, and at one end of which two 
boards are fitted at right angles to form 
a box corner about ten inches high. This 
box serves as a guide in building up the 
piece which is papered as follows: A 
sheet of paper is laid in the corner with 
the pile of papers next to it, and the 
folded piece, with number end and list 
toward the operator, is placed next to the pile of papers and slides 
over it into the box. The end is then laid upon the sheet of press 
paper, a second sheet being inserted in the fold, and a third laid on 
top. A fourth sheet is inserted in the fold, and the.edge brought 
up even with the edge of the second sheet, when the cloth, together 
with a sheet from the pile, is folded over into the box. A fifth 
sheet is inserted in the fold thus brought on top, and a sixth is 
laid on top, the cloth being again folded over. This operation is 
continued until the piece is all papered, care being taken that it 
is folded so as to make a straight, even pile. It will be noticed 
that the cloth does not come in contact with itself either on face 
or hack, the paper being between every two thicknesses. 

When a number of pieces sufficient to fill the press have been 
thus papered, they are placed in the press in the following manner: 
Two iron plates which have been heated are placed in the press, 




Fig. 51. Hydraulic Press. 



156 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



149 



tlien a sheet of cardboard, and the piece of cloth with another sheet 
of cardboard on top. The press is filled in this way, the heated 
plates, cardboard, cloth, and cardboard being placed in regular rota- 
tion, finishing with the hot plates. The press is then screwed down 
or, if hydraulic, pumped up to the pressure required, and allowed to 
remain over night, or for about twelve hours. Then the pieces are 
taken out and the papers changed so as to have the portions of the 
cloth which were not pressed in the first operation come in the 
middle of the sheets. A second pressing of the same duration as 
the first is now given the pieces, after which the papers are 
removed and the fabric is ready for the next operation. With the 
double handling required, it is a good day's work for two men to 
press twenty pieces. Figs. 51 and 52 represent presses used for 
paper pressing. These are built by the Boomer and Boschert 
Press Co., of Syracuse, N. Y., one being hydraulic and one power. 

Rotary Presses. In pressing cloth with a rotary jyress it is 
subjected to heavy pressure between an iron cylinder and one or 
more press beds, both the cylinder and beds being kept heated 
with live steam. The cylinder and beds should be made of fine 
grained cast iron, ground perfectly true 
and with a uniform thickness of shell. If 
the thickness varies, the expansion from 
the heat is unequal and the pressure will 
not be uniform. The cylinder must be 
draw-filed lengthwise to prevent the cloth 
from slipping as it revolves. Most styles 
of press beds are planed so as to fit con- 
centric with the cylinder, and all are faced 
with highly polished brass to allow the 
cloth easy passage under pressure. These 
brass jackets are fitted very tightly over 

the edges so that no dust, flocks, etc., can work in between them 
and the beds proper. 

The above requirements are true of all rotary presses, but are 
met in various ways by the different builders as will be evidenced 
by the following descriptions. 

Construction. The first style of rotary press to demand at- 
tention is the Old Gessner press. This style M'as first introduced 




Fig. 53. Power Press. 



157 



160 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

in 1878 and is still giving satisfaction, being used to some 
extent in preference to later and more improved models. Fig, 53 
is a sectional view of this machine, the course of the cloth being 
shown by the dot and dash line. The main parts are a 12^-inch 
cylinder C, two heavy press beds M and M'; two brushes Z and A; 
rolling and folding attachments ; pressure gauge; steam gauge, and 
piping. The cylinder C runs in boxes on the center or main frame 
of the machine, being driven through the train of speed -reducing 
gears shown by the dotted lines s, Z, Y, and R, in Fig. 53. By 
using this system of gearing a comparatively small amount of 
power is required. The heavy press beds M, M^ are mounted on 
the upright wings W, W\ which are pivoted at the bottom and 
connected at the top by powerful coil springs F and F\ These 
springs have nuts Q fitted on the front ends, with worm gear nuts 
H at the opposite ends, the latter being actuated by worms on a 
worm shaft to which is fixed the handwheel I. By turning the 
handwheel I, the wings W W^ are either drawn together or spread 
apart, thus causing the press beds to press against the cylinder or 
to be drawn away from it. The springs F F* give sufiiciently to 
relieve the crushing pressure which would otherwise be exerted. 
The press beds are self adjusting on their bearings so as to give a 
uniform circumferential pressure, and are also provided with heavy 
truss rods B B^ with nuts on the ends and set screws d and d^ in 
tlie center, by adjustment of which equal pressure is insured all 
across the cylinder. A pressure gauge, consisting of a numbered 
dial and pointer, is actuated by turning the handwheel. 

Operation. As various fabrics require different degrees of 
pressure to obtain the desired effects, it is well to keep a memo- 
randum of the number registered for any particular fabric or effect, 
in order that the same effect may be obtained subsequently with- 
out experimenting. The course of the cloth through the machine, 
as ijidicated in the cut by the dot and dash lines, is in detail as 
follows : From the platform at the front of the machine it ^:;asses 
over the brush regulator o, around a beam to a second brush regu- 
latory, one side being brushed by brush Z and the other by brush A. 
The amount of contact with the brushes is regulated by the hand- 
wheels L and L* through the worms and worm gears. Then from 
regulator f it passes over the carrier roll D, around the friction 



158 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



151 




\ 1 /\// '^^F^^^^-^r 




Fig. 53. End View of Old Gessner Press. 



159 



152 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



roll K, which has a friction damp at one end, to the stretch roll 
G, where it is spread out to full width, and over the steamer to the 
press beds and cylinder. The steamer is for the purpose of apply- 
ing steam to such goods as it is considered advisable to so treat 
before pressing. Passing between the press beds and cylinder the 
cloth is pressed and taken up by the draft roll J, from which it is 
either rolled up or folded onto the platform below. 




Fig. 5i. Woonsocket Machine Press Co.'s Miller Press. 

The ■])ressing surfaces of the beds are covered with brass 
jackets and the machine should never be run without cloth 
between the beds and cylinder, because there is always sufficient 
contact to wear the jackets. A leader shoidd always be kept on 
the press to prevent such happening, as well as to save time in 
starting up. Allow the press to become thoroughly heated before 



160 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



153 



starting up, with the gauge registering at least 40 lbs. of steam, 
and apply the beds very hard in operation. The best and most 
permanent results are obtained by hard pressing with the press 
heated thoroughly, and regulating the finish by means of the steam 
brush. In this way a finish may be obtained which will compare 
favorably with results produced by any other method. 

Various Types. Another type of rotary press is the one 
known as the Miller press, of which a front view is illustrated at 
Fig. 54. From this cut it is readily seen that the construction differs 
materially from that of the Old Gessner machine. Of course the 



e-ct:dn thhough cylinder and top and bottom beds 



cr;:3 C'_^VATioM 




Fig. 55. Steam Connections of Miller Press. 

principle of operation is the same and the pressing surfaces differ 
very little, but the beds enclose the cylinder from top and bottom, 
instead of from the sides. Instead of moving the beds up to and 
away from the cylinder, the bottom bed is fixed and the top bed and 
cylinder are lifted. This is accomplished by means of a large- 
handwheel which, through the connections of levers and cams, lifts 
first the top bed and then the cylinder. The pressure is applied 
by a system of weights and levers, and the amount of weight 
applied at each end is equalized by screwing in the lever rods. 
When the levers are unweighted, the pressure is about 4,000 lbs., 
and by adding weights it may be increased to 10,000 lbs., as fol- 
lows: "With No. 1 weight the pressure is increased to 5,400 lbs.; 
with No. 1 and No. 2, to 6,440 lbs.; with No. 1, No. 2, and No. 



161 




154 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

3, to 8,000 lbs.; and with No. 1, No. 2, No. 8, and No. 4, to 
10,000 lbs. Fig. 55 shows the steam pipe connections and is self- 
explanatory. 

An end view of the press bed is presented in Fig. 56, 
while Fig. 57 is an end view of the machine which gives a good 
idea of the travel of the cloth. The cloth, entering between the 
bottom bed and cylinder, is carried around by the cylinder under 

the top bed, from which it passes over 
the two idle rolls above the press bed, 
down under an idle roll at the back of 
the machine, and to the cloth roll, to be 
either rolled up or folded onto the plat- 
form beneath. Figs. 58 and 59 show 
the manner of driving the brushes, the 
Fig. 56. End View of Press usual method being as in Fig. 58. On 

certain classes of goods, where it is de- 
sirable to have the nap lie in the direction in which the goods are 
moving, the brush is run as at Fig. 59. Cassimeres are sometimes 
run in this way when it is desired that the nap shall have little or no 
springy feel; the pieces being run in tail end first, and the nap laid 
in the right direction when it comes in contact with the cylinder. 
New Century Press. One of the latest and most improved 
types of rotary press, built by David Gessner, of Worcester, Mass., 
and known as the New Century Press, is illustrated in Fig. 60. 
Referring to Fig. 61, the passage of the cloth through the machine 
is indicated by the dotted lines. From the floor in front of the 
platform E, it passes over the rod 1, down under the platform, 
being guided by the idle rolls 2, 3, and 4; up over the finger rod 
5, around rock shafts 6 and 11, one side being brushed between 
these two points by the brush 7, the other side receiving a brush- 
ing from brush 12, after which it passes around the friction roll 
13, under roll 16 to the spreader roll 17, and over the steamer 
18, between press beds B and B' and the cylinder C, from which 
the draft roll 20 takes it up, it then being wound into a roll or 
passed through the folder 21 to the floor. 

Operation. The contact of the cloth with the brush 7 is 
regulated by changing the meshing of the teeth of the ball-handle 
arm 10, with the segment 9, which is cast in one piece with the 



162 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



155 



swing-finger arm 9 a. To do this, disengage the teeth by lifting 
np the ball-handle arm until it is out of contact, and then remesh 
to suit the required conditions, A spring is provided to hold the 
ball-handle arm in mesh, acting from above where it is located in 
the small housing 10, which is attached to the front upright D. 
Changing ball-handle arm 25 in the same manner regulates the 
contact with brush 12. The flocks from brush 7 strike against a 




Fig. 57. End View Miller Press. 

dashboard 8 and fall to the floor, while those from brush 12 fall 
into box 14, to be removed through a door in front. 

The amotcnt of friction to which the cloth is. subjected is 
regulated at two places. First by means of a friction clamp 15, 
gripping a small pulley on the end of the roll 13, and secondly by 
a weighted strap 16 a (Fig. 62), y^hich is mounted on an extension 
of the stretch roll bracket 17 a, and slipped around a small pulley 
on the end of roll 16. Pressure is applied by turning the power 
shaft ky to which is keyed the toggle/', thus changing from the 



163 



156 



WOOLEN AND WOESTED FINISHING 



position of no pressure, illustrated in Fig. 61, to the position of full 
pressure shown in Fig. 62. 

Referring again to Fig. 62, the operation of the parts may be 
described in detail as follows. The power arm m is pivotally con- 
nected to the screw-threaded connecting link n^ which, passing 
through the sleeve on top of the rear upright D', is held in place by 
the collar I on one side, and on the other side by the worm wheel 6», 
which is threaded on the link. A worm A, meshing into the worm 
wheel o*, is keyed on the worm shaft j:>, which carries at its end a 




Fig. 58. Brush Belting. 

small handwheel (j. By turning this handwheel when the pressure 
is let off, the screw link is taken up or let back, thus shortening or 
lengthening the connections. Hence the amount of pressure ap- 
plied by turning the shaft Ti over into its locked or pressing posi- 
tion, is increased or diminished, according as to whether the worm- 
gear o is tightened or loosened. When the shaft h is turned 
backward one-half revolution, the beds B and B^ are immediately 
thrown wide open, out of contact, with the cylinder as in Fig. 61, 
all pressure then being removed. In order to equalize the back- 
ward tilt of the uprights D and D\ when releasing the pressure, 
they are pivotally connected by arms r and r^ to the swing pieces 



164 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



157 



.9 which are loosely mounted on pivots attached to the main 
frames A. These connections also serve to keep the uprights in 
their positions in case it is necessary to remove the cylinder. 
Should this ever be necessary, first disconnect the steam piping, 
then withdraw the shackle pins n\ thus breaking the connection 
between the power arm 111, and the screw link n, and allowing the 
uprights to fall back until held by the arms r and /. This leaves, 
after swinging the power arms rii out of the way, an open space for 
the removal of the cylinder. Stops t and t' are provided to prevent 




Fig. 59. Brush Belting. 

arms r and r', from turning too far. The beds B and B' (Fig. 61) 
carry on the lower corners at one end the idle rolls h and h\ 
these resting upon the inclined surfaces g and </', which are cast in 
one piece with the girder G, This girder G unites the main sup- 
ports A; the girders F and F' serving the same purpose at the 
bottom. 

In order to facilitate the application and release of pressure, 
the power shaft h is driven through a train of compound gears on 
the outside of the frame, the smallest of which carries a handwheel. 
The beds are locked in place regardless of the pressure by revolving 
the shaft until the toggles f are carried slightly below the center. 



165 



158 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



A sliding coupling -y, held in place by a screw button, connects the 
two sections into which screw shaft j?, is divided. To adjust the 
pressure at one end without disturbing the other, it is only neces- 
sary to loosen the bottom and slip the coupling aside, when either 
section of the shaft may be turned independently, each revolution 
advancing the worm wheel o just one tooth. In this way the 
pressure is most accurately adjusted without the use of a wrench. 




Fig. 60 New Century Press 

When the coupling is reset the shaft again becomes as one 
piece, and is then subject to action at both ends simultaneously 
by use of the handwheel q. A dial x having numbers facing 
toward both the front and the back, registers each adjustment by 
means of an indicator y attached to the back upright D', which 
shows amount of change in pressure. The trusses fitted to the 
bed plates are of an improved type fitted with double- threaded 
screws by the adjustment of which uniform pressure is insured. 
These truss screws z and z are double acting, one end engaging in 



166 




167 



160 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

the back of the beds, the other in the shackles j/ and^*' which con- 
nect the truss bars ^u and v)\ and by turning the screws in the 
required direction the middle of the beds are either drawn away 
from or applied more forcibly to the cylinder. One-sided wearing 
of the brushes is avoided by turning them end for end in their 
bearings, or when feasible by reversing the direction of the drive. 

Steaming. "While these presses are not generally fitted with 
apparatus for steaming the goods after pressing, they may be fitted 
with a steaming attachment as illustrated in Fig. 63, By this 
means the cloth may be steamed on either side as required, the 
threading for one side being shown in Fig. 63, and for the other 
side as shown in the small figure at the left. Arranged as in the 
small figure, the side which in pressing was next the beds is sub- 
jected to the steam, while as in Fig. 63 the reverse side is steamed. 
Fig. 63 also shows how the cloth is wound on wooden rolls either 
after being steamed, or direct from the press beds over roll 19. 
The back delivery roll 20 has attached next to it brackets 23 with 
inclined tracks upon which the wooden roll 22 is placed; the cloth 
being wound around this as shown. 

Voelker Press. Still another press merits description, one 
which on close examination will be found to have points of excep- 
tional value. This is the press built by G. W. Yoelker, of Woon- 
socket, R. I. A sectional end view is presented in Fig. 64 showing 
the threading of the cloth through the machine. This is sufiiciently 
plain as to require no detailed explanation. 

It is principally in the construction of the beds that this type 
of machine differs from those previously described. By referring 
to Fig. 65, it will be seen that the pressing surface of the beds is 
not planed concentric with the cylinder, but rather in two inter- 
secting arcs of greater radius. The pressing contacts are thereby 
doubled in number, the cloth being pressed twice under each bed, 
or four times in passing through the machine. In Fig. 66 the 
construction of the beds is illustrated more fully. A radical 
departure has been made at this point by having the pressure from 
the truss rod applied at the quarters instead of in the center of 
the bed as is the general practice. The two sections of the rod 
are pivoted at the extreme opposite ends and passing over the bed 
plungers are connected by a turnbuckle in the center where adjust- 



168 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



161 




, ii' li!i|llii 
iimiiiiilii! 



169 



162 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

ment'is easily made. When adjusted this bed is sure to maintain 
its straiglitness under any conditions of pressure, and heat, and 
the cloth will be pressed uniformly the whole M'idth. The cylin- 
der head is bolted in, and the fact that it is built in this way 
insures an even thickness of metal with uniform expansion when 
heated. 

Figs. 67 and 68 show the various frames and toggle links 
employed in producing the pressure, a cam being used to straighten 
out the links. One of the beds is held rigidly stationary, and in 
applying the pressure the other bed is forced against the cylinder, 
which is not held in a bearing; this in turn being forced against 
the rigid bed. 

Treatment. It matters not which of these presses is used 
to produce the effects desired, as the princi|3les are the same in all, 
the difference coming in the application. The various styles of 
fabrics require different treatment in pressing according to the 
effect desired to be produced. On cassimeres, worsteds, and simi- 
lar classes of goods, it is not desirable to have any lustre on the 
face of the cloth, therefore these goods must be run with the 
face next to the cylinder. By doing this the face will move with 
the cylinder and the back rubbing against the brass jackets of the 
bed plates will acquire the press glaze produced in pressing. This 
is also necessary with fancy goods where the pattern is partially 
composed of raised threads which might be injured if subjected 
to the rubbing action against the jackets. On the other hand, if 
it is desired to develop the lustre of the fibre to its fullest extent, 
as on face goods, they are run with the face down so that it will 
be subject to the rubbing against the brass jackets, and this in 
conjunction with the heat will materially increase the lustre on 
the face of the goods. When running the goods face down, care 
must be taken to have them run under the stretch roll instead of 
over it as when pressing the goods face up, otherwise the nap on 
the surface will be disturbed by the stretching. 

Care of Press. The pressing process, consisting only in the 
application of heat and pressure, is very simple, but there are 
many conditions governing the most efficient operation of the press. 
Sometimes it happens that some small object gets on or under the 
jacket and causes streaks in the goods during the pressing. In 



170 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



163 




171 



164 



WOOLEN AND WOESTED FINISHING 



such cases it is necessary to remove the jacket and attend to the 
defect. 

To remove the jacket from the Old Gessner press proceed as 
follows: Draw out all the screws in the bottom of the wings about 
I inch from the feet of the standards, so as to support the wings 
when opened out and yet prevent them from opening out too far. 
Disconnect all the brass unions to the steam piping on both beds 




Fig. 64. End View Voelljer Press. 

and cylinder; remove the chain belt and the belt on the brushes; 
run the worm gears on the coil springs back until quite loose; take 
out the screws which hold the jacket; run off the nuts from the coil 
springs, after first marking their positions so as to replace correctly, 
and then spread the beds apart until they are between two and three 
inches apart at the bottom. Now wind a piece of cloth around the 
cylinder and roll out the jacket toward the back. The jacket now 
being removed, may be cleaned and repaired as necessary and re- 



173 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



165 



placed when in proper condition, care being taken that no foreio-n 
material is between it and the bed, and the machine may be con- 
nected up again as before. New jackets are put in by the same 
method. 

Removing the jackets from the Miller press, which has a 
jacket for each bed, is made much simpler by the construction. 
Each bed has a rounded surface over which the jackets fit and are 
held in place, being held from slipping sideways by means of 
screws in the middle. "When these screws are removed the jackets 
may be pulled out through the openings after first removing the 
driving belts. Jackets which have become worn should be sent to 
the makers, who re-roll them so that the reverse side may be used. 




Fig. 65. End View Cylinder and Beds. 

On the New Century press the removal of the jackets is as 
simple as from the Miller press. 

When the cylinder fails to pull the goods through evenly, 
causing them to wrinkle and pull out of shape, it is usually due 
to the surface of the cylinder becoming glazed or gummy from 
the dyestuffs or other substances in the goods. This condition is 
remedied by the application of acid, which will clean and rust the 
cylinder. When the cylinder is excessively gummy, it should be 
washed oflp thoroughly with an alkaline solution before the acid is 
used. If the cylinder has become worn smooth by long continued 
use, it should be drawfiled with a coarse bastard file before the 
application of acid. It is necessary to remove the jacket from 
the Old Gessner press before this treatment, and to protect the 
other parts of the machine from being injured by the acid, old 
bagging, etc., sufficing very well for this purpose. Then if draw- 
filing is necessary it should be done by an experienced mechanic, 



173 



166 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



the file being drawn lengthwise of the cylinder; the file marks so 
produced give the required roughness to the surface. Drawfiling 
is not a necessary operation as a general rule, a simple rusting, or 




Fig. 66. Truss Rod. 



souring, as it is sometimes called, usually being sufficient to make 
the cylinder do its work properly for a long time. 

Rusting or souring is accomplished by M'etting the cylinder 
thoroughly, with either sulphuric or muriatic acid diluted with an 




Fig. 67. Toggle Links. 



equal amount of water, and allowing it to remain wet for an hour. 
Two applications of acid are usually sufficient, and then the cyl- 
inder is washed several times with water so as to remove every 
trace of acid. Removal of the Jackets is not necessary on the 



174 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



167 



Miller press or New Century press when souring or draw-filing, 
but the parts of the machine should be protected as previously 
described, and muriatic acid should be used, as it does not have an 
injurious effect on the brass jackets. It frequently happens that 
the goods do not run through the machine as smoothly as they 
should because of impurities contained in them; for this reason 
they should be thoroughly washed. Certain colors in piece-dyed 
goods are often the cause of imperfect work on the press, particu- 




larly if there is an excess of dye grease left in them, which, when 
subjected to heat, renders them sticky, and thus prevents them 
from running through readily. When care is taken that the goods 
are clean and the machine level, with cylinder and jackets in good 
order, the goods will generally run through easily and the results 
will be satisfactory in every way. 

Steaming Attachments for steaming the goods on the press 
after pressing, are used chiefly on the cheaper grades of goods, and 
are designed to produce the required finish without steam brush- 
ing. This of course reduces the labor cost appreciably, and the 
desire to do this has stimulated the builders to improve their ma- 



175 



168 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

chines in other ways as well; but the finish produced entirely on 
the press is always inferior. When the goods are finished entirely 
on the press, it stands to reason that the pressing cannot be as 
hard as it should be to give a lasting finish, and the results will 
not equal those produced by hard pressing combined with steam 
brushing. The cost of finishing in this way is of necessity higher, 
but the finish is so superior as to be noticeable even to one not 
familiar with the work. In small mills where the pressing opera- 
tion does not take up all the time, the goods, by a judicious divi- 
sion of work, may be pressed and steam-brushed without any 
material increase in the labor cost. Steam brushing or dewing is 
an indispensable operation when the goods are pressed by the old- 
fashioned paper pressing. 

FINAL INSPECTION. 

After steam brushing or dewing, which completes the finish- 
ing process proper, it only remains for the goods to be finally 
insjpeGted^ measured^ and Tolled. The final inspection discloses 
the result of the previous processes, and even when the finisher is 
not required to do this, he should examine the goods at this stage; 
as by using good judgment he, more than any one else, can see 
how and where any improvement may be made. As this final 
inspection must be as thorough as possible a sufficient amount of 
time should be allowed the inspector for the purpose. Any imper- 
fection overlooked here is sure to come up later in a claim from 
the buyer, who subjects the goods to a very rigorous inspection. 
If it pays the buyer to have the goods thoroughly inspected to the 
extent of paying high wages, it ought to doubly pay the manu- 
facturer. The inspector does not rectify faults, but marks them 
by inserting a string in the selvedge. Each string inserted means 
that, on wide goods, one-eighth of a yard is deducted from the 
length of the piece, with a corresponding reduction in price. On 
narrow goods a quarter of a yard is allowed for each imperfection. 

These small items add up to a costly total, and show how 
necessary it is that extreme care be used to the small points in 
finishing; more especially as applied to the burling and mending 
processes, because nine-tenths of the imperfections can be traced 



176 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 169 

back to neglect or inability, during these processes, to make good 
the weavers' shortcomings. 

The inspector is also required to notify the finisher of any 
faulty work in his department, and when correction is possi- 
ble to send the piece back to be refinished. There is a limit to 
the number of imperfections a piece may contain, and still sell 
for first quality, because the buyer objects to many imperfec- 
tions in the cloth even at a reduced price; for the imperfections 
make economical cutting difficult. While the number of allow- 
ances permitted to a "first" varies, the usual number is six; cloth 
containing a greater number being sold as " seconds." 

Value of Inspection. During inspection the goods must be 
handled as carefully as possible, for there is no further process to 
rectify the effects of carelessness hore. The goods must also be 
carefully compared as to shades; if more than one shade is found 
to a style, it must be so marked and a piece cut off for future 
reference. A sample should be cut off every first piece of a style, 
to enable the inspector to compare it with all subsequent pieces of 
the same style. Where fancy goods are made, samples should also 
be given to the shearer, or at least samples of such as are consid- 
ered satisfactory, in order that the same effect may be produced. 
The sides must be compared with the middle and with each other as 
to evenness of shade and the ends should also be compared. In 
doing this the evenness of the shearing should also be noted. If 
ordered to pass some work not up to quality the inspector should 
take note of the number and style of the piece so as to prove, in 
event of complaint, that he was not responsible. 

MEASURING, ROLLING, AND PACKING. 

Measuring, The goods having been inspected are ready for 
measuring. This is done either on one of various styles of 
machines built for the purpose, or in the following manner: A 
table, usually five yards long, is provided, upon which yards, halves 
and quarters are marked, and over this table the goods are drawn. 
The end of the cloth is drawn to the end of the table and a pin 
inserted, thus indicating the length of the table. The cloth is then 
drawn along until the pin is at the other end; continuing in this 
way until the piece is all measured, including that part left on the 



177 



170 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

table when the last pin is drawn to the table end. Then by count- 
ing the pins and adding the amount remaining on the table the 
total length of the piece is ascertained. 

Before measuring, the heading, which is the unsheared part at 
the end of the piece, is cut off; also the similar part on the other 
end, leaving, however, the number attached for future reference. 
When an imperfection is found near the end, the cloth is usually 
cut off at that point to be sold as a remnant. The number of 
pieces is now recorded, together with the length and allowances, 
and a note of remnants cut, if any. A ticket is made out for each 
piece, on which is recorded the style, gross length, and length 
after deducting allowances. The ticket has also a place to indicate 
the number of the case into which the cloth is packed, but this 
number is not placed on until the invoice is taken. With a com- 
plete record such as this- at hand, the finisher can calculate to a 
nicety how to regulate the shrinkage or other matters pertaining 
to the fulling, etc. The ticket is laid on the piece, to be fixed in 
its place after the cloth is rolled up. While the above is a rather 
primitive method of doing the work, many mills still use it where 
money could be saved by the use of machinery. 

A machine for measuring, but not doubling or rolling, is 
illustrated at Fig. 69. Its operation is so simple as to require no 
explanation. The machine illustrated at Fig. 70 is more useful 
because it will also double the cloth, but the one represented at 
Fig. 71 is a still later style and has the added advantage of requiring 
less floor space. All of these machines are too simple to require 
detailed explanation. 

The ineasuring device on the machine illustrated at Fig. 71 
difPers radically from the others; instead of a round dial, the indi- 
cator is mounted on a screw shaft which is geared into a carrier gear 
driven from the measuring drum. The fork which rests on top of 
the cloth is attached to the screw shaft, and when lifted into the 
position shown in the illustration the small gear of the screw shaft 
meshes with the gear on the other small shaft, causing the indica- 
tor to travel along the registering rod, thus showing the number 
of yards measured. As soon as the cloth runs of? the drum the fork 
drops into a slot in the drum and through the connections throws 
the indicator shaft out of gear instantly, and, though the machine 



178 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



171 



continues to run, the indicator will not register. This is a very 
accurate method of measuring. 

When the goods are measured and rolled up before packing, 
a letter or figure is usually punched out at the end, for the pur- 




pose of showing that no material is cut off after measuring. Occa- 
sional dishonesty among buyers, la making shortage claims, has 
led to this custom. In some mills silk is stitched across the end 
in addition to, or to take the place of punching. This done the 



179 



172 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



roll of cloth is bound with a piece of tape about four inches from 
each end. The tape should be tied on neatly and uniformly be- 
cause, while of no real importance, it immediately suggests that 




care and neatness is the custom with the manufacturer. The ticket 
is now attached at the list end of the roll near the board on which 
the cloth is wound; taking care that the string passes through only 



180 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



173 



one thickness of cloth, otherwise the goods cannot be unwound and 
opened ont. 

After the goods are taped they are weighed, generally on 
a scale similar to steel-yards, the beam of which is graduated 
to pou-nds on one side, and ounces and tenths on the other side. 
The weight taken is for one yard only. In order to obtain this 




Fig. 71. Windle's Doubling, Winding and Measuring Machine. 

result the weights put upon the weighing pinion are divided into 
yards so that there are weights for ^, ^, -J, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 10 
yards. Then the gross number of yards is put upon the pinion 
and balanced on the beam. For instance, if a piece is 38|^ yards 
long, three 10-yard weights are placed on the pinion, together 
with 5, 3, ^, ^, and |^-yard weights, and when balanced on the 
beam, the exact weight per yard is shown in ounces and tenths, 
which weight is noted on the ticket. 



181 



174 WOOLEN AND WOESTED FINISHING 

Wrapping. All that remains to be done now is to roll up in 
paper and pack. Wrapping np is done by placing the roll on a 
sheet of paper of suitable size with the ticket at the right, then 
turning up the paper over the roll, the nearest end inside, and 
placing a weight on to hold it in place. Then a slit is cut in the 
right end of the paper through which the ticket is passed and the 
top, side, and bottom ends are folded in smoothly; repeating at the 
opposite end. The tie-up twine is measured off by laying three 
times from the table over the piece to the table, with an allowance 
of about a foot on the end, the length so measured being just suf- 
ficient. A knot is tied at. the end of the cord, when it is passed 
around the roll about six inches from the left end, a slip knot then 
being tied and drawn up tight; this same operation being done at 
the other end, the cord is passed around the roll lengthwise and 
tied at the point of starting in such a manner that by pulling on 
the end, the knot is readily loosened. The pieces are then placed 
in a pile with the ticket end on top until sufficient are at hand to 
fill a case, when the invoice is taken; the number of the case being 
marked on each ticket, and the ticket slipped under the cord, face 
down. The case is then packed, the cover nailed on securely, and 
when properly marked it is ready for shipment. 



183 




<: 

Q 

> 
o 



I 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED 
FINISHING. 

PART III. 



Parts I. and II. have dealt with the principles of finishing, 
their object being to explain the methods and machines generally 
used for finishing; woolen and worsted cloths; but there are stand- 
ard cloths which require special treatment at various stages of the 
finishing operation. This condition is due to the variety of stock 
used in the manufacture of the goods, and to the variety of effects 
demanded by the trade. 

Two fabrics, on which radically different effects are required, 
may be treated in the same inanner for part of the finishing proc- 
ess and then branch out into special lines; for instance, two fabrics 
may be given the same treatment in every operation except gigging 
and tlie results be so unlike that one would suppose they were pro- 
duced by entirely different means. 

To produce goods with the right " feel " or the correct ap- 
pearance, it is necessary to know the soap and the temperature 
best adapted to the goods, the time required for each operation, and 
other seemingly small but really vital points. 

The various classes of worsted goods require special treatment 
to bring out the clear, sharp effects peculiar to that class of goods. 
Union fabrics require still another method, and so on over the 
whole range of goods manufactured in woolen and worsted mills. 

The following processes for finishing standard fabrics are 
the result of long experience and careful experiments, conducted 
with a view to determining the methods necessary for the pro- 
duction of the best finish on each fabric. Goods finished by these 
processes have stood the practical test of competition, which in- 
sures the practical nature of the following suggestions : 



185 



178 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

CASSIMERES— SAXONY FINISH. 

Cassimeres, as such, receive different kinds of finisli. Perhaps 
the most important of these is the Saxonj finish, therefore it will 
be explained first. 

Fulling. In order to bring out the full beauty of this finish, 
the goods should be constructed with special regard to it. They 
should receive from four to five hours fulling, and should be 
shrunk in length at least four inches per yard, so that a firm and 
well-felted fabric will be produced. The details as to the prepara- 
tory process are substantially the same as on all cassimeres and 
close-finished goods. The fulling, while of importance should not 
differ from that of any other well-felted fabric, except to insure a 
good felt it is necessary to limit the alkali in the soap to the 
smallest proportion consistent with good work. Two ounces of 
pur© alkali or four ounces of sal soda to the gallon is sufficient. 

Washing. No departure from the usual method of washing 
is to be noted, and if the proper care is exercised during the rins- 
ing operation, the goods will be freed from soap and the result 
satisfactory. After the washing a bath of fuller's earth should 
not be omitted, which on this finish will be found of especial bene- 
fit; but care must be taken not to have the solution too heavy. 
Fuller's earth at best is hard to remove from the goods, and if an 
excess is used in the solution, the goods will feel clammy and 
look pasty when finished. 

Rolling and Stretching. After the goods are thoroughly 
cleansed of fuller's earth they should be put on the rolling and 
stretching machine, of which a desirable pattern is shown in the 
illustration at Fig. 72. This machine needs no explanation, as 
the figure shows plainly how it is operated. When used on these 
goods, it is a good plan to fill the tank with warm water and have 
the goods pass through this before going on the stretch roll, as by 
this means better results will be obtained. 

After being tightly rolled up, the goods are left to drain over 
night by laying them flat on skids. In winding it is advisable to 
roll the goods as tightly as possible, for the tighter they are rolled 
the more evenly they will drain. If squeeze rolls are employed it 
is advisable not to squeeze the goods too dry, for they should not 



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WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 



179 



go immediately to the gig, but in every case should be let lie over 
night. The rolling and stretching and subsequent lying over 




night is of the greatest benefit to these goods, as it gives them a 
smooth appearance when finished which cannot be obtained in any 
other way. 



187 



180 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 

Gigging. The gigging process is where the finish is put on 
these goods, and if the fulling and other processes have been prop- 
erly performed, the method here described will give the most satis- 
factory results. On a double cylinder gig the process is as follows: 
Both cylinders should be filled with old work and run in opposite 
directions^ the goods being given six runs; then the flats should 
be cleaned and six more runs given. One flat should now be taken 
out to give a dry surface, then the next, and so on, till the whole 
cylinder is treated. For the back cylinder, the first flat is taken 
out and replaced with one grade sharper; then the next one is 
replaced by a grade sharper than the first, continuing in this man- 
ner until every flat has been changed. The goods should now be 
given six runs clean, flats turned, and six runs more given. At 
this point the old work which remains in the first cylinder should 
be replaced with sharp or new work, at the same time reversing all 
the flats. Now the old work in the back cylinder should be replaced 
by new work, and the front cylinder reversed so as to run in the 
same direction as the rear cylinder. When these preparations are 
com.pleted the goods should be given six runs clear, flats turned, 
and six more runs given, after which they are taken off the machine. 
The goods are then sent to be speck-dyed. 

After being speck-dyed, the goods are taken to the wet gig 
and given three or four runs with plenty of water. They are then 
folded off and taken to the extractor. After being tliorougldy 
extracted^ they are sent to the brush for a thorough brushing, and 
are then ready for the dryer. Every dryer ought to be supplied 
with a brush, but as it has not yet dawned upon the makers that 
this is a good and valuable addition to the dryer, one should be 
afiixed by the finisher using it. After drying, a thorough dry 
beating should be given, and the goods are ready for the shear. . 

Shearing. The goods are sheared down slowly, plenty of 
runs being given so as to have them as even as possible. The 
beauty of the Saxony finish consists in having a little of the nap 
left on the goods so that there will be a soft feeling and still no 
spring to the nap. The threads should all show up plump and 
clear, and if these directions are followed the results will be all 
that can be desired. 



188 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 181 

A good steam brushing follows the shearing and this is in 
turn followed by an inspection. The goods are subjected to 
another steam brushing operation and then pressed. On the press 
they are run f(-ice up^ tail end first, nnder a very heavy pressure. 
This will take rau\3h of the spring out of the nap and it will be 
hard to tell which way the nap runs. Four runs over the steam 
brush with a moderate amount of steam and the brush put on 
very lightly completes the finish. Inspecting, measuring, rolling, 
and packing follow as usual. 

CASSIMERES— VELOUR FINISH. 

As indicated by the name, the object of this finish is to imi- 
tate the velour or velvet effect. To do this, and also to make a 
perceptible difference between this finish and the ordinary cassi- 
mere effect, the nap is finished in an erect position. The proceed - 
ino-s at the different stag-es are much the same as in the previous 
finish until the cloth arrives at the gigging process. Here a 
departure from the former process is noted, for the goods should 
be run as moist as possible without dripping. This makes it 
necessary to give fewer runs at a time, for the teasels become wet 
faster. 

Gigging. The gigging is started with old work, as on all 
classes of goods, and special care must be taken to prevent fibres 
from being pulled out. This is done by keeping the cloth from 
coming in contact with the teasels too much, which will also pre- 
vent the nap from being laid or flattened down. The aim is to 
have the nap as lofty and loose as possible. 

Gigging in this instance differs much from gigging any other 
class of goods, sharper work being used because the cloth is not 
brought in such close contact. The work should be sharp enough 
to pick up or lift the fibres, instead of dragging them length- 
ways. After the gigging has proceeded to the stage where the 
sharpest work is employed, and when the bottom fibres need to be 
raised, the cloth should be put on closer to enable the teasels to 
reach the nap and get at the remaining fibres. However, great 
care must be taken not to injure the threads. 

When the goods have been properly cleared and the gigging 
has been nearly completed, the last few runs are given reversed, 
but this should be very light, just simply enough to bring the nap 



189 



182 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

to an erect position, therefore the cloth is brought very lightly in 
contact with the teasels. However, it must be done evenly, so that 
no streaks or blotches will be perceptible, as will be the case 
if the nap is but imperfectly raised. 

During the gigging operation the goods should be reversed 
frequently, if gigged on any but the double cylinder gigs, and on 
these both cylinders should be run in opposite directions until the 
last runs mentioned, when it is necessary to set the cloth oflP from 
the rear cylinder and use the front cylinder for turning only. 
Even then the work will in some cases be unsatisfactory. To over- 
come this difficulty on the double cylinder gig, it is a good plan to 
run the goods for this purpose tail end first throughout the process, 
and on the last few runs use the rear cylinder only. 

When nappers are used, the goods are given two runs straight 
and one run reversed, leaving the goods without contact with the 
laying brush throughout the operation. The double-acting napper, 
which is illustrated in Part I., is the best machine to use for this 
finish, and if it is available, two runs in the usual way will accom- 
plish the desired object. 

After gigging speck-dyeing is in order, if needed, and that is 
followed by a bath of fuller's earth, which imparts a soft and 
agreeable feeling to the cloth. The goods are then ready for the 
dryer. 

Drying. The only precaution to be observed here is that the 
dryer is not stopped during the process, for this will leave a streak 
wherever the face comes in contact with the rolls. At the dry 
beating, the goods should receive a couple of runs the usual way 
and then one run reversed; the last run should be very thorough. 

Shearing. The cloth is then taken to the shear and the rais- 
ing brush used very llgJitly, or it will have a tendency to turn the 
nap over. The nap is lofty and tends to an erect position by 
reason of the previous work the cloth has received. The back 
brush or laying brush should be put on in good shape, so that the 
nap may be properly laid on each run. The goods should not be 
sheared too closely, for with the treatment they have received, the 
nap is in such condition that the colors and pattern will show up 
in good shape even with quite a little left on the goods, while its 
erect position will give the goods the desired velvet feeling. 



1§0 



WOOLEN AND WOESTED FINISHING 183 

In pressing, the cloth is run the same as in the Saxony finish, 
tail end first with face up. When steam brushing, just enough 
steam must be used to take off the gloss of pressing, and not 
enough to affect the back of the goods, while the brush is used 
only moderately. In this way the goods will be smooth and it will 
be easy to feel which way the nap runs. By following this method 
the undesirable sharp feeling is avoided and a very pleasing feel 
imparted to the goods. 

On close -fimshecl cassimeres the goods may be handled in 
substantially the same manner, except that the shearing will have to 
be close, for the goods must be, threadbare. On this class especially 
the gigging must be thorough, so that the goods may be sheared 
down closely and look clear, without having to resort to the scraping 
which would be necessary if not gigged properly, and which gives 
the cloth a harsh feeling. 

o 

UNION CASSIMERES. 

This class of goods is generally composed of cotton with an 
admixture of a few woolen or shoddy threads for the warp; and a 
mixture of cotton, shoddy, and a little or no wool composes the 
filling. In common with all low-grade goods, it is a hard class to 
handle. The burling and mending need not be mentioned again, 
for these operations are necessary on all goods. 

Fulling. Union cassimeres usually receive flocks to make 
weight, for shrinkage lengthways cannot be produced; in fact, to 
get them out right, it is often necessary to stretch them. The 
amount of flocks is usually of quite large proportions and therefore 
the goods should be tacked. After they are sewn together in the 
mill, one-half the flocks should be put on and the mill run for 
fifteen or twenty minutes before the soap is added. From two to 
four hours are required to full these goods, depending upon the 
quality of the stock. The soap used should be made with three 
ounces of palm oil soap or four ounces of cotton seed oil soap. 

When the goods begin to get warm, the remainder of the 
flocks should be added. Five or ten minutes after the balance of 
the flocks have been added, the goods should be examined to see if 
there is sufficient moisture in the mill, if not, a little soap should 
be added. The traj^s are not used and all that is to be watched is 



191 



184 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

the width of the goods. As soon as they are up in width, an 
extra dipper of soap should be given, after wliich they are taken 
out of the falling mill and put in the washer. 

Washing. It is best to dispense with the use of warm water 
in the washer, for the colors are not of the best, and to have them 
look bright, it is just as well to use only cold water. However, 
the lathering should be watched and care taken that the goods are 
not taken out before they are well rinsed. 

After the goods are thoroughly rinsed and before taking them 
from the washer, they are speck-dyed. After dyeing, another 
rinsing takes place, and then the water is shut off and the goods 
let drain, keeping them hi 'motion. The gates should now be shut 
and each piece given two pailfuls of salt water, made by dissolving 
about twenty-five pounds of salt in a barrel of water. They should 
be run in this brine for five minutes and then taken out, leaving 
the brine in them. A thorough extraction comes next and then 
the goods are dried. 

Gigging. They are now ready for the gig, and are treated 
here substantially the same as if they were moist. They should be 
gigged until they are clear, care being taken not to use too much 
sharp work. They will clear easily, for the felting capacity of the 
stock is of such a nature that there'will not be much felt to break 
up. From the gig they are sent to the shear and sheared down 
threadbare. This should be done without scraping, if possible. 

Specking follows the shearing, and is in turn foUoM^ed by 
pressing. They should be run face up, being steamed lightly on 
the face and folded off behind. Examining, measuring, etc., follow. 

CHEVIOTS. 

In the last few years cheviots have been divided into two 
classes. Where formerly the rough -finished cheviot was the only 
fabric known by that name, there is now a close-finished cheviot. 
On the latter the threads show up plainly, somewhat like a cassi- 
mere, being in that respect the opposite of the rough-finished 
effect. 

It is not necessary to burl these goods as thoroughly as cassi- 
meres, yet they should receive a fair amount of attention. The 
mending depends largely upon the style; some styles showing 
imperfections more clearly than others. When bright colors are 



192 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 185 

used for the effect, the mending and burling must be carefully 
performed, that the patterns may show up intact in the Unished 
cloth. 

Fulling and Washing. It is not desirable to have much felt 
on these goods, for they are of an open nature, therefore, one to 
one and one-half hours fulling ouo-ht to be sufficient. With a 
fair-bodied soap, this will make the goods sufficiently firm and 
still leave them pliable enough for good handling. After fulling 
them to width and length, taking weight from loom and the 
finished weight wanted into account, they are taken to the washer 
and subjected to the usual treatment; then speck-dyed. A slight 
extraction follows, and then the goods are rolled up tightly and 
left till the next morning. 

In some cases, especially the cheaper grades, the goods may 
be taken from the washer, thoroughly extracted, and dried at once. 
If they contain a percentage of cotton, and at the same time fancy 
threads, the latter plan is advised as the most profitable. 

Shearing. After drying, the goods go at once to the shear, 
although this is often omitted. However, a run or two on the 
shear will benefit them, if nothing but the long hair is clipped off. 
On close-finished goods, the shearing has to be continued until the 
proper clearness is reached, but they should never.be sheared 
threadbare. 

Pressing. These goods are pressed faoe up under heavy 
pressure^ using steam on the press. The steam brushing is 
omitted, for the goods get all the brushing that is necessary on the 
press. The usual final operations follow. 

KERSEYS. 

The finer grades of kerseys call for quite an elaborate finish, 
and quite an amount of work has to be put in on them to produce 
the required results. One great mistake is usually made, and that 
is the steaming of the lower grades. There is nothing gained by 
this, but on the contrary, the goods are actually harmed by the 
process, as it tends to show up imperfections, of whatever nature 
they may be, more plainly than the simpler water finish would. 
Having a good article, well constructed, it is well enough to bring 
out the inherent lustre of the fibre to the fullest extent possible 
and steam finishing is in such cases an imperative necessity. 



193 



186 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



Usually the construction of the lower class is of an imperfect 
nature, from the fact that all manner of expedients are resorted to 
to produce a piece of cloth as near as possible to the genuine article 
of higher price, but which is so only in outward looks. Nothing will 
bring out imperfection in construction more clearly than the steam- 
ing process. But with the water finish, while the lustre obtained 
is not as high and permanent, the faults may be successfully hid- 
den from view. However, as the steam finish is the one usually 
employed, it will be explained first. 

Burling and flending. The burling of kerseys mustbethor- 




Fig. 73. Device for Heating Water. 

ough, and anything which will tend to mar the smoothness of the 
fabric must be carefully removed. The beauty of the finish depends 
upon the smoothness of the fabric, and therefore all bunches and 
knots should be taken care of. As far as the mending is concerned, 
there is very little to be done on them except on some heavy 
weights, on the back of which it is necessary to sew in misspicks 
and replace missing threads. If this is not done, they are likely 
to make a dull mark on the face of this class of goods, while on 
others they do not show so plainly. These things will speak for 
themselves in the finishing, and can be regulated as one or the 
other way is found necessary. 

Misspicks on the face may be cut by running a sharp knife 
under the threads which have not been bound down in the weaving, 



194 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 187 

and after the goods are fulled they will not be noticed. On wool 
or yarn-dyed kerseys, however, it often happens that to produce a 
certain effect the warp yarns are of one color while the filling yarn 
is of another. In such cases all misspicks will have to be sewn in 
on the face, for the cutting will not obliterate thera. 

Fulling. After the goods have been properly burled and 
mended they are tacked in the manner described in Part I., and are 
then ready for the fulling process. The first question which pre- 
sents itself is whether it is best to full the goods in the grease or 
have them scoured first. As all the essential requirements for a 
good kersey may be obtained in from five to six hours fulling, the 
scouring of the goods before fulling is not necessary, and they may, 
therefore, be successfully fulled in the grease. 

The soap should be of a good body; three ounces of palm oil 
and one ounce of tallow soap to the gallon will give.sufiicient body 
to last through fulling and be enough for the washing also. As 
alkali has a tendency to hasten the fulling, it should be reduced to 
the extent necessary to properly start the grease. About three 
ounces of pure alkali will do this or six ounces of sal soda. 

As a usual thing more or less flocks are used on kerseys and 
even on the finest grades; flocks, if of the proper quality and mod- 
erate proportions, are fonnd to be of benefit in that they help to 
fill up the crevices and thus produce a solid and smooth fabric. 
The flocks are best put on after the goods hegin to felt, that is, 
after they have begun to get warm ; and, to be more effective, should 
be put on in small quantities at a time. This will retard the full- 
ing process, but that is rather more beneficial than otherwise. 

Washing. When properly fulled the goods go to the washer 
and are thoro-ughly washed and rinsed. The rinsing must be very 
thorough, for the goods are intended to be steam finished and there- 
fore must be clean, also because a small amount of tallow soap has 
been used, and can be removed only by a careful rinsing. Warm 
water is a necessity for these goods and should be used in the 
washer to the fullest extent. In goods where tallow soap is used, 
warm luater must he tised to remove it. 

Figure 73 illustrates a simple method of heating water for 
the washer. A is the supply pipe, C is the steam pipe, B the 
point where the water and steam meet, and D is the discharge 



195 



188 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

pipe. The supply pipe should be at least 2i inches in diameter, 
and the discharge pipe not more than 2 inches, as by this means 
the heat may be regulated easier. A -|-inch steam pipe will give 
sufficient steam for all purposes, ■ too much steam making the 
water too hot, which is worse than cold water. The holes in the 
discharge pipe should be placed so the water .will run on the goods 
as. they pass down into the washer. ■ 

Having the goods properly cleaned, they are taken to the roll- 
ing and stretching machine and tightly rolled up. As much 
weight as possible is put on the rolls so that the goods may drain 
evenly and become as smooth as possible. They are left to drain 
over night and the next morning are unrolled and placed in even. 
piles ready for the gig. The goods should all be unrolled at one 
time, not only as they are wanted at the gig as is done in some 
places. Each day's work should be placed by itself and taken to 
the gig in rotation. While it is of advantage to have goods lie in 
piles for some little time, they should be handled so that all will 
receive as near the same. treatment as can be given them. 

Gigging. It has now been satisfactorily established that nap- 
pers are just the thing for face goods, and therefore they are em- 
ployed more and more, few places clinging to the old method of 
gigging face goods entirely with teasels; although there are many 
who still think it best to finish the gigging on the teasel gig. 
While it is not our purpose to discourage the use of teasels, it is 
a fact that the gigging process for even the finest goods can be 
satisfactorily performed on nappers. However, if goods are to be 
gigged on teasel gigs, the double cylinder gig will be found to be 
the best adapted for the purpose. 

The gigging should be commenced with old work and the 
process conducted gradually, not introducing the sharp work until 
the very last. As the cylinders on the double gigs generally hold 
eighteen flats, it is best to divide them in three sets of six flats 
each, and make siw grades of work. The first cylinder should be 
run reversed to within one grade of the sharp work, and on that 
as well as the last or sharp work, both cylinders should be run in 
the same direction. 

Attention should be paid to the strength of the goods, both 
before commencing" to gig and all through the process. This is of 



196 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 189 

the utmost necessity on steam-finished goods, as the steaming will 
make the goods tender if there is the least tendency in that direc- 
tion. 

Where the naiyper is used for part of the work, the goods 
should be run head end first on the first run, with moderate speed 
of the workers; then increasing the speed of the workers and 
giving another run, this time tail end first. The laying brush 
should be put on the goods as hard as possible, for on this finish it 
is an object to lay the nap. Then take the goods to the gig and 
finish them up, starting here with the cylinders both going in the 
same direction. Have the front cylinder filled with next to the 
sharpest work, and the rear cylinder half of medium, and the 
other half sharp work. The cloth ^s at first put in contact grad- 
ually, but after one run is put on closer and toward the end of the 
process is in as close contact as possible, so that the nap will be 
well laid. 

Cropping. If it is required to crop the goods, which should 
be done on most fine goods, the pieces are taken to the shear when 
the gigging is about half done, and in some cases, as in this latter 
illustration, they are cropped after coming from the napper. When 
cropping, it is advisable not to go too low on the goods, for if this 
is done, they will look thin and open when finished. The object is 
to remove some of the nap so as to give the teasels a chance to do 
their work more thoroughly, and at the same time to even up the 
fibres already raised, so as to give the goods a smoother appearance. 

To produce the most satisfactory results by this process, the 
raising brush should be taken out and a wire brush substituted, as 
the latter will raise the moist nap better. The raising of the nap 
for cropping must be thorough and everj, so that all the fibres may 
be sheared to an even lenMh. It is too often attempted to do the 
cropping in one run over the shear, but for all practical benefit this 
does, it might as well be omitted. Pieces cannot be cropped evenly 
in one nor in two runs, for the cropping should be conducted as 
carefully as any other shearing. The correct way is to go down on 
the goods by degrees, and when low enough to give them several 
runs to even the nap. The cloth is then taken back to the gig and 
the work completed in the manner above indicated. 



107 



190 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

When the napper alone is used^ the goods should be given 
one run tail end first and one run head end first, then increasing 
the speed of the workers and giving another run tail end first, after 
which the goods are sent to be cropped. After cropping, the goods 
should be run on tail end first and again increasing the speed of 
the workers, one run should be given. The workers are now put 
on the fastest speed and the cloth given one more run, this finishing 
the goods in good shape. The laying brush of the napper and the 
cloth should be kept in the closest possible contact throughout 
the operation. 

Sometimes it is advisable to crop the goods twice, and if this 
is thought best, divide the two cropping processes evenly with the 
napping work. This is done by running the goods through once 
with the head end first, then cropping; next giving two runs, the 
first run tail end first, and the second run head end first, then 
cropping again, and finishing as explained above. 

There are three methods indicated here by which the work 
may be done, but these should not be taken as infallible guides, 
for more judgment is required in gigging than anywhere else; 
therefore the goods must be closely studied and a method adopted 
which will give the best results. Watching the work and seeing 
the results on pieces when finished is the only way to determine 
the best way to conduct the gigging. 

Steaming. The next process the goods pass through is the 
steaming. When running the pieces on the steamer, it is well to 
bring them under the first cylinder from the loading drum, and 
then over the break and stretch rolls to the brush. The tank 
should be filled with water so that the goods will be well wetted 
before coming in contact with the brush; while the brush should 
be put on as hard as possible, so that the nap may be laid on as 
smooth as possible. When this is done, the goods may be steamed 
at once, it being unnecessary to use the cylinder to wet them. The 
steaming process should be continued long enough to give the 
required finish, observing all the points as given in Part I. 

If one steaming does not give the required finish, a second 
steaming should be given, care being taken to find out if the goods 
are able to stand it. After each steaming the goods are thoroughly 
cooled, and they are then ready for carbonizing if this is thought 



198 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 191 



necessary. If piece djes, they are ready for the dyehonse; or if 
wool or yarn dyes they are taken to the washer for speck-dyeing, 
and are then ready for the wet- gigging. A bath in fuller's earth 
should be given after speck-dyeing. 

On the wet gig, the goods should be given about four runs 
up and down with plenty of water and then rolled up firmly and 
stood on end over night, after which they are unrolled and thor- 
oughly extracted or squeezed. The squeeze rolls are best suited 
for this purpose and should be employed; however, if they are 
not at hand, the goods should bei well straightened on the brush 
before being put on the dryer. After drying the usual process of 
hack burling is employed, and this is followed by steam hrushing 
and shearing. The goods should not be hurried in the brushing, 
but the operation should be as thorough as time will permit, for 
the action of the brush and the steam are of the greatest benefit 
and will much enhance the value of the finish. 

Care should be used in the shearing process which follows, 
plenty of runs being given to ensure having the nap as even as 
possible. Another brushing follows and then the goods are specked 
if necessary. They should now be inspected and if satisfactory, 
given one more steam brushing and pressed. 

Pressing. As these goods are worked all the way through 
with a view of bringing out the inherent lustre of the wool fibre 
to the fullest extent, the work is continued on the press by running 
ihevaface down or next to the bed. A slight steaming between 
the stretch roll and the cylinder just before they enter the press, 
will help^ them, although in most instances they will do very well 
without this. A moderate pressure is sufiicient and is followed by 
another steaming on the face, after which they are rolled up on 
the press. They are now ready for the final inspection, after which 
they are measured, rolled, and packed. 

Water Finish on Kerseys. This finish is substantially the 
same as the first described, except that the steaming process is 
omitted. Water finish being mostly used on low-grade goods, 
the gigging must be watched closely to preserve the strength of 
the goods. Speck-dyeing follows gigging and is in turn followed 
by wet-gigging. The other processes are the same^sin the steam 
finish. 



198 



192 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

riELTONS. 

The difference between meltons and kerseys is found in the 
giggino;. While kerseys are practically "made" in the gig room, 
meltons do not enter this department at all, or at least should not, 
for the characteristic of a melton is opposite to that of a kersey. 
After fulling and washing, which processes are substantially the 
same as on kerseys, the goods go at once to the steamer. Carbon- 
izing and dyeing follow, except on wool dyes. Speoh-dyeing must 
not he Oihttted, and after this the goods are taken to the stretching 
and rolling machine and tightly rolled up. They are left on the 
rolls till the next morning and then go to the dryer. When dry 
they go to the shear and are here sheared in two or three runs. 

The shearing is simply for the purpose of cutting off the long 
hairs, and should not be too low. A light steam brushing follows 
and the goods are ready for the press. It is best to steam these 
goods on the press, and to press them moderately. They should 
then be steamed and either rolled up or run off the press and folded 
on a stand at the back. The usual treatment follows. 

BEAVERS. 

Goods of this class almost invariably' imply cotton warps and 
considerable cotton in the filling; althoug-h on some of the better 
grades the face warp is of wool or its substitutes and the backing 
wfjrp cotton. For this reason the work of satisfactorily finishing 
these beavers is one of the most difficult problems for the finisher. 
The gi-eat trouble usually is that too much is expected of the fin- 
isher in the line of producing sufficient lustre, for where there is 
little lustre inherent in the fibre it will be found hard to produce 
a good lustre on the finished fabric. 

Fulling. The fulling process is usually long and tedious, a 
great deal of trouble being caused by mill wrinkles, which must 
be overcome in the usual way. The soap must be strong and of 
good body. As these goods are piece dyed, they must be washed 
clean, and all trace of soap removed by the washer. 

As it is out of the question to shrink the goods in length, the 
weight must be made by the addition of flocks. As there is only 
the filling to take and hold the fiocks, it is imperative that two 
things be carefully considered. One is to see that they are heavij 
oiougJi before coming to the finishing room, so as not to require 



200 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 193 

an excessive amount of flocks to brincr tlieni to weio-ht; and the 
other, to use only flocks which possess the felting quality in a 
high degree. 

It should be the aim to produce a piece of cloth, which, though 
flocked to quite an extent, is not decreased in value. This can 
only be done by using flocks which have sufficient felting quality 
left in them so that they will become a solid part of the fabric and 
not shake out as soon as the goods dry. A fabric is never the 
worse for flocking, if this point is borne in mind; in fact, there is 
very little doubt that if the flocking is performed judiciously and 
with the right kind of flocks, the goods are improved by it. 

Gigging. After fulling and washing the goods are rolled up 
tightly and let drain till the next morning, when they are gigged. 
If care is exercised any of the nappers may be used to good advan- 
tage on these goods. The fibres should be saved as much as 
possible, and for that reason the goods are run only one way 
and the nap vneJl laid. The machine should be run slowly to get 
a thick bottom nap. If time allows, the goods should be cropped, 
for this will materially aid the finish. 

After gigging the pieces are sent to the steamer and are 
steamed for from seven to ten minutes for each cylinder, after 
which they go to the dyehouse. A thorough rinsing follows 
dyeing, and the cloth is put on the wet gig for a good wet-gigging; 
it is then rolled up and left till the following day to be dried. 

Steam brushing follows drying, and is in turn followed by 
shearing. The nap should be trimmed lightly at fir ^t and the 
raising brush kept in slight contact. Plenty of runs should be 
given, going down on the goods very gradually, and shearing as 
low as possible without exposing the threads. After shearing, 
they should be steam brushed again, and then pressed face dov/n 
with a good hard pressure ; also giving a thorough steaming on 
the press. The usual operations follow. 

CHINCHILLAS. 

Chinchillas are a radical departure from the cloths previously 
explained, requiring specially constructed yarn on the face, and 
additional finishing machinery. The cloth should be constructed 
in the loom with a view to facilitating the finishing process, which 
chiefly consists in the production of a thick^ heavy nap. It the 



201 



194 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

yarn is not handled properly in the spinning room, or if the cloth 
is of poor construction, the finisher cannot turn out a well-finished 
piece of chinchilla. If the face yarns are what they should be, 
there will be little trouble about getting a good nap; and after 
that is obtained the rest is comparatively easy. 

The whole process of finishing is conducted with the object of 
producing a soft yet solid and substantial piece of cloth, which will 
have a full and well-worked nap. If all the conditions are right, 
the pieces are not put in the fulling mill; for when fulling is 




Fig. 74 Kinyon Bros. Whipping Machine. 

necessarj^, the goods are not constructed properly and the finish 
will not be just right. The aim of the maker should be to con- 
struct cloth on which the necessary amount of felting will take 
place while the goods are being scoured, for if it is necessary to 
run them in the fulling mill they are apt to be too stiff and boardy. 
Scouring and Washing. When scourina or washino- chin- 
chillas the width must be carefully watched and special attention 
paid to the nap. Of course, tie strength of the soap must be suffi- 
cient to properly start the grease, but unlike a soap for fullincr, it 
is not necessary to have the body very heavy, for the grease is not 
held in suspension any length of time. But it should be heavier 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 195 

than the ordinary soaps used in the washer, and therefore a soap 
made with two ounces of good palm oil soap or three ounces of 
cocoanut oil soap and three ounces of alkali to the gallon will be 
found to answer the purpose. The heavier the soap the longer it 
will take to remove it, and on thes.e goods, as on all others, the 
soap must be well rinsed out. If this soap is used and plenty of 
warm water used to rinse it out, the desired result will be obtained 
without difficulty. After coming from the washer the goods are 
extracted and are then ready for the gig. 

Gigging. This is the most important operation of the whole 
process of finishing, for at this point it is required to produce a 
full, and heavy nap, worked up clean from the bottom in such a 
manner aS to leave no streaks, and to completely cover all threads. 
This requires patience and strict attention to business, or the result 
will not be creditable. The chief point to be observed on the goods 
under consideration, is the use of very dull work and plenty of 
time. Sharp work of any kind should be carefully avoided, as it 
will inevitably cut the filling and produce streaks. That the work 
used may not do more execution than is wanted, it is a good plan 
to have more moisture in the goods when they are started than is 
usually the case, as this will avert much of the danger of cutting 
the filling. Another point of danger is where the nap is reversed. 
Unless this is done with the greatest of care, bad work is sure to 
result. 

The old fashioned up-and-doion gig is much to be preferred 
for this kind of work, as there are fewer chances of doing harm; how- 
ever, the rotary gig may be used successfully. When the gigging 
operation is nearly completed, the goods are taken off and put on 
the shear for a cropping. This should not be omitted, as it will 
impart to the goods an evenness which can hardly be obtained 
without it. 

Shearing. When shearing these goods, there is slight depart- 
ure from the ordinary working of the machine; the raising brush 
must be of wire so that the fibres may be effectively raised, the 
laying brush is not used. Shears for the purpose of shearing chin- 
chillas are not equipped with a brush on the main shaft. The 
shear should be kept in good condition, so that one run will be 
enough to trim the nap evenly, all that is required being to square 



103 



196 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

the naj), leaving it as long as required for the finish. The goods 
are then returned to the gig and the process completed. 

Whipping Machine. The fact that the nap should be 'in its 
proper position before the goods are dried, has been mentioned in 
these papers, but on chinchillas this fact again comes to the notice 
of the finisher in a forcible manner. The nap has been obtained 
by the exercise of the utmost care, and it is desirable to bring it 
to the best possible position before drying. For this purpose, the 
pieces are run over a machine termed a " whipper," which is illus- 
trated at Fig, 74. This machine consists of a framework attached 
to which are thirteen slender rods of tough wood. The rods are 
actuated by levers and cams as shown in the illustration. The 
cloth passes over the framework, face down, the rods beating on 
the back of the cloth as it passes, thus bringing the nap to an erect 
position. The machine is placed in such a manner that the goods 
pass from it immediately to the dryer. 

Drying. The machine used for drying chinchillas is of dif- 
ferent construction than the ordinary drying machine, as is shown 
in the illustration at Fig. 75, During the drying operation the 
cloth does not come in contact with anything but the pins on the 
chains. These chains are at the sides, and carry the cloth through 
the machine. Hot air is supplied at a point below the cloth, and 
travels toward the point where the cloth enters; the machine being 
enclosed to make the heat of more service. 

After the goods are dried they are again sent to the shear, 
and at this shearino; the size of the "nub" must be taken into ac- 
count and the goods sheared accordingly. If the "nubs" are to 
be large the nap must be left long., or if a close, fine "nub" is 
desired the cloth must accordingly be sheared closer. Uniform 
work and even shearing are necessary to obtain good results, for 
ragged work will result in uneven " nubs," When the nap has 
been cut to an even and uniform length, the cloth is put on the 
chinchilla machine. 

Chinchilla Machine. The illustration at Fig;. 76 shows one 
of these machines, commonly called the "Whitney" machine. 
The framework of the machine supports a bedplate about three 
feet from the floor and rigidly fastened to the frame. This bed- 
plate is covered with a good grade of Brussels carpet, which is 



204 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



197 



firmly glued to the plate. On each side of the bed is a roll cov- 
ered with short card clothing, these rolls being the delivery and 




take-up rolls, by means of which the cloth is drawn over the bed- 
plate. Above this bed is found another plate of similar shape and 
proportions, but made of cast iron, whereas the bed is usually of 



30& 



198 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

hard wood. This upper surface, which is called the follower, has 
a solid rubber plate cemented on the under side. 

The follower is movable and can be raised or lowered by 
means of the handle and chain as shown in the cut. An upright 
shaft passes through each end of the follower, and is supplied with 
a mechanism to produce the different motions the follower is 
intended to describe, which may be rotary or reciprocating, back- 
ward or forward, from side to side, or diagonally, as is desired. 
The mechanism can also be set so as to increase or decrease the 
"sweep "of the different motions. Power is derived from main 
shaft of machine, and this is driven by a belt from power shaft in 
the room. 

These machines are built to be used ior five distinct motions^ 
and the finish obtained by each is known by a separate name to 
distinguish from the rest. The most common names are the 
" Whitney " and the " Petersham," one being produced by the 
rotary motion, and the other by the reciprocating. 

The setting of the machine requires considerable Judgment 
and is one of the labors which are not amenable to fixed rules ; 
correct judgment backed by experience, being the only thing that 
can be relied upon to adjust the motion correctly. It is not 
usually advisable to give the follower all the sweep the machine is 
able to give, the best results being obtained when the sweep is 
kept helow the limit of possihility . 

The proper care of the follower is very important, and the 
rubber plate on it must at all times be kept free from grease and 
dirt. If the follower is taken down about once a fortnight, and the 
rubber plate thoroughly rubbed down with some rough material, 
or cleaned with benzine, it will save much trouble and good work 
will be produced by the follower. It often happens that this is 
looked after as it should be, and still work will come uneven. In 
this case, attention should be directed to the woodwork to which 
the rubber plate is ceiuented, the rubber being removed and the 
woodwork placed perfectly true. The rubber is then put in place, 
and generally further trouble will not be experienced. The same 
precaution is also to be observed with the bedplate. 

The speed of the main shaft of the machine should be from 
145 to 150 revolutions per minute, which will give the follower 



206 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



199 



from 475 to 500 full motions per mimite. It is therefore neces- 
sary to secure the mechanism in such a thorough manner that it 
cannot work loose and impart a different motion than the one 
with which it was started. This frequently happens if this matter 
is not properly attended to. 

The piece is put on the bed and attached to the- take-up roll 
and also to the delivery roll, then the follower is let down so as to 




Fig. 76. Kinyon Bros. Chinchilla Machine. 

touch the nap, and the machine started. The nub begins to form 
at once and the piece is run through to the end. On the common 
grades of chinchillas, one run through the machine is enough, and 
after the back has been carefully brushed the piece is finished ; 
but on the finer grades it is necessary to return the piece to the 
shear, after the first run through the machine, and crop the nubs 
to the required size. When this is done, the raising brush is set 
off, for it must not be used after a nub has once been formed. 
Another run through the machine will give a fine and close nub. 



207 



200 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

• After brushing the piece on the back, it is carefully inspected 
to see that the nubs are even, and then the goods are measured, 
rolled up and packed. 

OUTING FLANNELS„ 

There is a demand for a large variety of these flannels. The 
17-inch and 33-inch melton-finished goods find the most favor, 
because they are soft and clinging, and have a moderately high 
finish. It would require an expert to find a name for all the 
shades in which these goods are made, but the most delicate shades 
of rose, cream, and pink seem to predominate. 

The yarns, of* which these goods are made, have to be spun 
to very fine counts, and therefore the stock used is of good quality. 
In order to have a large and perfect production, it is necessary to 
size the warp yarns to aid the weaving, and this item often causes 
trouble in the finishing room. These flannels cannot be finished 
correctly unless the sizing is seriously considered, for such sizing 
as is generally used on worsted goods cannot be used successfully 
on theiu. The sizing should be of a nature to dissolve most 
readily, so as not to cause too much trouble in its removal. The . 
burling must be thorough, while mending should not be needed. 

Scouring. The scouring process follows the burling and is 
composed of a bath of warm water not exceeding 110° F., to 
which about 2 per cent of soda is added. For these goods, it is 
best to dissolve the soda previously and add the liquid solution. 
The pieces run in this liquor for half an hour, which is sufiicient 
to properly loosen the sizing and remove most of it. The water 
is then drawn off and a strong but light-bodied soap is added with 
sufficient wariti water to make a good bath. The soap used is 
preferably made with two ounces of palm oil soap and three and 
one-half to four ounces of alkali to the gallon. Four pailfuls of 
this soap are given to each piece. 

The goods are run for thirty minutes and then the soap is 
drawn off, the sizing being well removed by this time; that is, if 
it is of the right kind. Another bath of soap and warm water is 
given, consisting of two pailfuls of soap and plenty of warm water. 
The pieces are allowed to run from twenty to twenty-five minutes 
in this and then the soap is drawn off and the goods are ready for 
rinsing. This process should be started with warm water and 



208 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 201 

after about twenty iiiinutes the cold water is graducdly let on, so 
that the change from the warm to the cold process may not be too 
sudden. 

This is a point which is well worth remembering in connec- 
tion with other goods besides these flannels, for much trouble may 
be averted at times by its observance. It stands to reason that a 
fabric which is being- treated with warm water, cannot be bene- 
fited by coming suddenly in contact with cold water, and espe- 
cially is this the case in winter. It is much better to have the 
whole process conducted with cold water, than to use warm water 
for part of the process and then suddenly change to cold water. 
Warm water, on the other hand, is of direct value, especially on 
flannels, and to obtain the best results sudden changes should be 
avoided. 

The duration of the rinsiiig operation after the cold water is 
on cannot be definitely stated, for it depends largely upon the sup- 
ply as well as the nature of the watel-, but it should be thorough. 
After the rinsing is completed the goods receive a bath of fuller's 
earth, which will effectually remove any trace of soap left in the 
goods. This completes the first scouring, and the pieces are ex- 
tracted and sent to be dried. 

Fulling. When dry, the goods are taken to the fulling mill, 
and here a good bodied but nearly neutral soap is used to give the 
foundation for the melton finish. The traj>s are not used, for it 
is not intended to shrink the cloth in length, but simply get it to 
width. The soap used at the mill is made of three ounces of No. 
1 palm oil soap and two and one-half ounces of sal soda to the 
gallon. 

The goods should be taken from the mill when they are within 
one and one-half inches of the width required; that is, for 27-inch 
goods, they should be taken out at 28^ inches, and for 33 inches, 
at 34^ inches. If taken out narrower than this, they will finish 
too narrow. They may, of course, be easily stretched to width, but 
this is at best a very poor policy, for this kind of fabric has a 
habit of creeping back. It is much better to finish the goods a 
quarter of an inch wide than too narrow. Besides, it is always 
best to finish goods naturally^ and not resort to stretching more 
than is necessary to prevent wrinkles. There is nothing but 



208 



202 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



trouble caused by fulling the goods too narrow, and it can be easily 
avoided by close attention to the fuller. 

Steaming. After fulling, the goods are again taken to the 
washer to be rinsed with warm water, followed by cold water and 
the bath of fuller's earth. They are now taken out and run open 




through a pair of squeeze rolls, care being taken to avoid torliikles, 
after which they are ready for steaming. The finish required 
is to be medium in point of lustre, and therefore the goods are 
only steamed, cooling with water being omitted. About four min- 
utes steaming on each cylinder is amply sufficient, and they are 
then rolled on wooden rolls and stood on end for cooling, from ten 



210 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 203 

to twelve hours being required for this purpose. During this time 
tho rolls must be frequently turned upside down, so that the 
moisture will not gather on one side and cause the goods to be of 
a different shade on the moist side, after being colored. Unless 
this is attended to, the cloth will be shady in spite of all the dyer 
can do. 

After pulling the goods off the rolls they are inspected for 
spots and dark threads. This inspection is necessary on account 
of the delicate shades these goods' are colored, and it is important 
that the lighter shades are only put on such pieces as are in every 
respect fitted for them, th& pieces with spots and dark threads 
doing; well enough for the darker shades. 

After the goods are colored, they are again carefully rinsed 
and then dried. They should be dried about three-quarters of an 
inch wider than the finished width required. 

The inspection follows the drying process and is in turn fol- 
lowed by .shearing. These goods should be sheared quite low, 
and receive three or four runs to insure evenness, which cannot be 
produced on one or two runs. The pieces will look all the better 
for the few extra runs given, and therefore they should not 
be hurried. 

Pressing. The cloth is now ready for the press, and still an- 
other style press is used, as is shown in the illustration at Fig. 77. 
This press is the opposite of the one shown at Fig. 80, for, as will be 
seen, the apron runs around the cylinder, covering it so the goods 
do not come in contact with it. While the press itself differs from 
others only in so far as the apron is concerned, it is in a class by 
itself, and is necessary on fine dress goods where it is an object to 
retain all the moisture possible, and have one side finished dull 
while the other side receives a high finish. The goods are I'un 
face down with vioderate ■pressure and are steamed on the face 
either .on the press or steam brush. This completes the finishing 
process, and the goods are ready to be inspected and wrapped up 
for the market. 

FINE DOESKINS AND FACE GOODS. 

The" finishing of fine doeskins and face goods presents one of 
the best fields for a finisher to show his ability. Face finished 
goods of any kind require more time than is usually required in 



211 



204 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

the finishing of woolen goods, but on the finer grades such as doe- 
skins, time should not be considered, but the sole aim of the fin- 
isher should be to excel in the finish. The difference in the time 
required to finish these goods does not play an important part in 
the total production, for after the finish is started everything 
comes along in rotation and the goods are taken care of very easily. 

In the first place, the burling must be performed with the 
utmost care so as to have the fabric as smooth as possible. After 
the goods are properly burled, they are ready for the washer and 
are given a tJiorotigh scouring. The soap should be thin but 
strong, and the goods should be cleansed in good shape ; it being 
poor policy to slight the rinsing. They should then be thoroughly 
extracted and dried. 

It is thought by some that the drying is not necessary, and that 
after thoroughly extracting the goods, they may go at once to the 
fulling mill. It is not worth while to argue this point, for it is self- 
evident that in such cases the moisture in the goods is not supplied 
by the soap, as it should be, and while a tolerably fair finish may 
be obtained, it will be found that- the goods lack in one respect 
and that the most important, i.e., the feeling of the goods. 

In the theory of fulling as given in Part I., it is stated that 
the moisture should be supplied by a good-bodied soap. This is 
necessary for two reasons ; firstly, because the soap has a softening 
effect on the fibres, and secondly, because too much moisture has 
a tendency to make the goods feel hazy. It necessarily follows 
that if the moisture is received in the washer, it cannot be sup- 
plied by the soap; therefore, the goods should he dried hefore 
entering the f idling mill. 

This is a good opportunity for the finisher to find out what 
per cent the goods loose on account of grease and dirt being 
removed, and he will thus be able to conduct the after-processes 
more intelligently. The goods should be weighed before entering 
the washer, and again w-hen dried and ready for the mill. Only 
the gross weight in pounds is taken, and the loss can then be easily 
found. 

Fulling. The goods must be run a long time in the fulling 
mill to give the tine and close felt necessary for the finish. A 
heavy bodied but neutral soap must be used, and this is preferably 



212 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 205 

made as follows: Four ounces of the best palm oil soap and two 
ounces pure tallow soap are used to the gallon ; or, if it can be 
obtained, four and one-half to five ounces of olive oil soap. If 
this latter soap is used, the finish will be much better. The soap 
should be as near neutral as possihle, but in order to produce a 
good homogeneous soft soap, it will be found necessary to use 
about one per cent of sal soda. With such a soap there is no 
trouble about getting the goods out feeling as soft as it is desired 
to have them. 

The goods will run from eight to ten hours in the mill, and 
care must be taken not to let them get too dry, for after they 
become warm the moisture will evaporate; therefore, more soap 
must be added at times. Running so long the goods sometimes 
tend to roll, and if this happens the piece should be taken out, 
well-shaken, and run back into the mill, the other end first. This 
will usually stop the rolling. On all goods that run long in the 
mill, it will be found of benefit to shake them out once or twice 
during the process, as this will prevent mill wrinkles. 

After the fulling is completed, the goods are again sent to 
the washer and are thoroughly washed and rinsed with as much 
warm water as possible, and when clean and free from soap they 
are given a generous bath of fuller's earth. After this they are 
taken to the rolling and stretching machine and given the same 
treatment as kerseys. They should remain on the rolls over night 
and then be folded off without wrinkles, and left in a pile twenty- 
four hours, after which they are gigged. The object of laying 
the goods in piles is to give them a substantial feeling. One 
experienced in the finish can tell by a mere handling whether the 
goods have lain that way. 

Gigging. The use of the napper on these goods has been ex- 
cluded about as long as possible but now it may be said that the 
old teasel gig is gradually being supplanted. One item of ines- 
timable benefit is found in the use of nappers, and that is the 
absolute certainty of the same kind of work on all the pieces. That 
the grading of the teasels is a particular piece of work has never 
been denied, but even with the best of care there is no certainty 
that the work given pieces to-day will be the same as that to be 
given to-morrow. All that can be done is to make the work as 



213 



206 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

uniform as possible. Therefore, it is best to use the napper, and 
especially the double-acting napper if it can be obtained. There 
is no use trying to put off the use of the latest improved machinery; 
it is much better to try it, and study it, and in most cases, its use 
will be found to give the desired results. As on kerseys, so here, 
the aim is 2.full^ and dense nap, and several thorough croppings 
should be given the goods and the laying brush used to the maximum. 

Steaming. The goods are now ready for the steaming, and 
here may be noted a slight departure from the ordinary way. After 
the goods are run off one cylinder, they are at once run on the 
other. Both tanks are filled with water and the brush put on as 
hard o.s 'possible. The cloth is now run from one cylinder to the 
other, three or four times, or until the nap has been well brushed 
down so that the face is smooth. This must not be overlooked, 
if it is desired to have a good finish. 

These goods are all wool and therefore no bad after-effects 
will be produced by a thorough steaming. A steaming is under- 
stood to be a steaming once on each cylinder; so that for a double 
steaming, the cloth should be steamed twice on the same cylinder, 
to save the time of running it back and forth. But this very run- 
ning is of great benefit, as it brings the goods in contact with the 
brush. 

After steaming the usual carbonizing etc., is in order. As 
there is no further departure from the method employed on ker- 
seys, the other processes need not be mentioned again. These 
goods are all wool, and may be either wool or piece-dyed. 

DOUBLE CLOTHS AND REVERSIBLES. 

In some senses, double cloths require double the amount of 
care which is given to ordinary fabrics, the finishing presenting 
many phases that are not met with in single cloths. . 

The proper construction of the fabric is of more importance 
in a double cloth than in any other style, for no amount of care in 
the finishing can overcome a faulty construction. The cloth of 
which ladies' capes are made is a good illustration of this, for it is 
usually of a soft nature, with a plain black or dark blue face, and 
a large plaid of striking colors on the back. If the construction 
of these goods is faulty, and the binding of the white or colored 



S14 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 207 

threads of the back pattern protriide on the fctce, it is next to 
impossible to bring the goods out clean looking; for the white or 
colored fibres will find their way to the face by the action of the 
gigging, and thus spoil the appearance of the fabric. But given 
a perfect fabric in this respect,- a moderate amount of care em- 
ployed at the right point will bring it out all right. 

Burling and Mending. Eight at the beginning of the fin- 
ishing process, changes are made in the handling, and this is kept 
up all the way through. The burling should be performed with 
much more care than on single cloths on account of both sides of 
the cloth receiving a finish; and for this same reason both sides 
should be treated alike, and both regarded as the face. Where on 
other cloths, runners appearing on the back are not of much im- 
portance so long as the face is intact, on these goods they must be 
looked after the same as on the face. Both sides of the cloth should 
receive the same treatment in mending, for the pattern is generally 
in the combination of colors rather than in the weave, and all 
fancy threads must be in their proper places or they will show up 
imperfectly. 

Fulling. The calculations preceding the fulling process must 
be made on a basis of per cent of loss sufiiciently large to cover the 
extra loss sustained on account of the extra amount of work the 
goods receive on the back. Nor will it do to lose sight of this part 
of the work, for if proper provision is not made, the result will 
surely be a disappointment. Flocks are not often used, still on 
some of the cheaper grades, where more subdued colors are used, 
they are often a necessity, and when this is the -case it is well to 
bear in mind that the usual allowance of fiocks is not enough. 

The common practice is to put on tioo ounces of flocks for 
every ounce in weight to be ma,de up by them, for that is about 
the proportion which becomes part of the fabric when finished; but 
on ordinary goods the flocks which adhere to the fibres on the back 
are not disturbed by after processes. On the goods under consid- 
eration, however, this is changed, for the back -of the goods receive 
a finish and consequently a portion of the flocks is removed. 
This must be taken into consideration when the flocks are added in 
the mill. Three ounces of flocks for one ounce in weight to be 
made up will be found none too many, and if the flocks are not of 



215 



208 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

the best quality, it is sometimes necessary to n^e four ortnces. If 
flocks are not used, it is unnecessary to tack the cloth before fulling. 

Some double cloths are not fulled, for instance, the cloth used 
for capes is simply scoured. On reversibles, however, it is neces- 
sary to full the pieces and to shrink them to width and length. The 
fulling process as well as the soap used, does not differ from the 
process used on other goods and is subject to the same conditions. 
If any tendency towards rolling or roping manifests itself, the 
goods should be tacked, and if that does not overcome the difficulty, 
the other method formerly advised should be used. 

The loasldng does not differ from other goods, and the fuller's 
earth bath should not be omitted, for it will tend to brighten the 
colors. The treatment at the points thus far mentioned is practi- 
cally the same as on other' cassimeres, but commencing with the 
gigging process extra care must be taken. 

Gigging. As stated before, if the construction is faulty, the 
colored fibres of one side will interfere with the effect of the other, 
but even if this is all right, injudicious gigging may produce the 
same trouble. The best method to follow at this point is to start 
the operation with old work and run the machine slowly, advanc- 
ing to the sharp work. When running the sharp work, care is 
taken that it does not strike the goods too hard or the workers may 
go too deep and take hold of the fibres of the other side. 

The back of the cloth is gigged first to reduce the possibilities 
of causing defective finish on the face. It must also be remem- 
bered that the chances of tendering the goods are double those on 
a single cloth; therefore, the gigging should be kept well wnthin 
the strength of the fabric. 

When the goods are properly gigged on both sides, the ques- 
tion of speck -dyehig arises, and if it is necessary, the proper time 
to do it is immediately after gigging. Of late years, the carboniz- 
ing process both for stock and pieces has done away wdth much of 
the speck-dyeing; still there are many places where the carbonizing 
process is not used, and on low-grade goods it is of course out of 
the question. After burr-dyeing and thoroughly rinsing the pieces 
are extracted and then dried. 

Before taking the goods to the dryer, it is a good plan to brush 
them on both sides. The machine illustrated at Fig. 78 is admir- 



■16 



WOOLEN AND WOESTED FINISHING 209 

ably adapted for this purpose. These machines, having four cyl- 
inders, which may be clothed with brushes instead of the sand lays, 
are used so that two of tlie cylinders will brush the face, and two 
the back, thus doing in one operation what would otherwise require 
two separate operations and handlings. 

After drying the cloth is carefully looked over on both sides, 
the object being to remove knots; and this is followed by a steam 
brushing on hoth sides. The goods are then ready for the shear. ' 

As a general thing, some of the nap is left on the back, even 
if the face is to be finished threadbare, but sometimes the back has 
to be sheared the same as the face. The shearing process is the 
same as on other goods, except that the hach is' sheared first. 
After the shearing comes the specking and that is in turn followed 
by another brushing, after which the goods are pressed. They are 
pressed with the face up and the steam brushing applied to both 
sides to remove the press glaze. The usual final processes follow. 

LOW=QRADE GOODS. 

Of all goods to be finished, the low-grade goods will always 
be found the hardest to bring out satisfactorily. More care has to 
be exercised at all stages, and many of the processes will be extended 
in time beyond what is usually the case with the better grades. 
To this must be added the desire on the part of the management 
to keep the labor cost down to the lowest point. 

The finisher should insist on being given enough time to da 
the work right, for anything short of that will only hurt his own 
reputation; and while it is hard work to build up a reputation, it 
takes only one or two failures to lose it. It is a good plan to keep 
a close watch on the soaj}, th.Q fulling., and abcTVe all on the wash- 
ing/ for nothing is worse than dirty goods, unless it is goods that 
are tender. The gigging should be kept well within the strength 
of the goods, for a poor finish is much to be preferred to a good 
finish with a tender piece. 

THIBETS. 

One kind of low-grade goods, which at all times finds a ready 
market, is the Thibet cloth, which on account of being made entirely 
of low stock may be taken as an example at this time. The 
genuine Thibet cloth, of which most styles in the market are 
imitations, has a firm, rough face, is soft to handle, has no nap, and 



217 



210 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

is either in fancy colors or dyed in the piece. A style of cloth is 
found on the market under the name of " blind cheviot," which is 
in reality a Thibet. 

As regards the linish proper, it may be said that there is no 
distinct finish, it being somewhat of a mixture between a melton 
and a cheviot, neither of which requires much work in the finishing 
department. But even so, it will be found hard to produce the 
results that present themselves as a matter of course on better stock. 

The first process, the burling, is usually a very laborious piece 
of work, for the grade of stock, as already indicated, causes many 
bunches and other imperfections seldom found in goods of better 
stock. Mending is usually omitted, the burlers pulling out double 
and coarse threads. The pieces are then tacked. This should not 
be omitted under any consideration, for as the stock is low, the 
face needs all the protection possible, so as to retain the fibres to 
cover the threads. If the pieces are not tacked, the fibres will 
wear off very much during the fulling process. It is of no conse- 
quence which method of tacking is employed if the work is done 
thoroughly. 

Fulling. On account of the felting quality of a large part 
of the stock being very low, the pieces are run into the mill- either 
double or treble, so as to bring as much cloth as possible under 
the roll. This also causes the cloth to go around much faster, 
thereby subjecting it to more frequent pressure, which aids the 
fulling greatly. But care must be taken that the fulling accom- 
plishes the desired purpose, which in this case is not only the shrink- 
ing of the goods in length and width, but also to have the weave 
well covered toith felt. This need not be hard ai\d close felt but 
Just enough fibres to cover the threads; for an excess of felt is apt 
to make the goods feel stiff, whereas a soft feeling is desired. 

If the stock is of a nature that the goods shrink too quickly, 
or before the face is covered with felt, it is better to run them 
singly, even if they have to be doubled at the end to shrink them 
to width. In such cases it is a good plan to run the goods singly 
in the mill and have sufiicient pressure on the traps to shrink them 
gradually in length. When they are about up in length the felt 
will cover the threads. As this is the result that is desired, the 
cloth should be doubled, as explained under the head of fulling, 



916 





Q o 






1-1 

& 
o 
P 
I 

pq 
o 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 211 

and quickly brought up in width, no pressure being used on the 
trap. 

By this it will be seen that although the goods are cheap, they 
are quite a study for the finisher, and experience on low-grade 
goods is required to bring them out right. It is easy enough to 
finish goods made out of good straight stock, but to make a pre- 
sentable article out of stock which in many mills is allowed to go 
to the refuse heap, is quite another matter. In the fulling mill 
the pieces must be run a trifle more moist than ordinary, for if 
allowed to run with the minimum of moisture they will chafe too 
much, and some of the stock that should be on the face, to cover 
the threads, will be found. at the bottom of the mill, even though 
the goods are tacked in good shape. 

Soap. A good soap for these goods may be made as follows: 
One and one-half oiinces palm oil, one and one-half ounces tallow 
chip soap', and three ounces of pure ammoniated alkali, or crystal 
carbonate of soda to the gallon, made in the usual manner. This 
soap will stand fulling to the extent of from five to six hours and 
then be good enough for the washing operation. The only draw- 
back to this soap is that it is hard to wash out of the goods, which 
is due to the tallow chip soap. Therefore the w^ashing, which im- 
mediately follows the fulling, should be very thorough, and the 
ri.nsinor should not be neglected. 

On goods of this class, that is, low-grade, special care must be 
taken to have the goods a'pened out and folded as soon as they 
come from the mill. This is done by removing the tacking strings 
and opening the goods out, then drawing them over a perch and 
folding them as straight as possible, taking special care to prevent 
wrinkles. This precaution is necessary when the goods do not 
enter the washer immediately, and is done to prevent the wrinkles 
from showing when the goods are finished. I-f the goods are left 
for a few hours in the condition they come from the mill, all the 
•wrinkles and creases will show up. It is almost impossible to 
remove wrinkles formed in this way, so it is best to avoid them as 
much as possible. 

After the pieces are thoroughly washed they are speck-dyed, 
if they are wool-dyed goods, while if they are to be piece-dyed, 
they are now sent to the dyehouse. If wool-dyed they receive a 



aie 



212 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

thorough speck-dyeing and rinsing, which is followed hj extracting 
and drying„ After being dried thej are sheared, three or four runs 
being given to square the nap properly. Care must be taken not 
to shear them low enough to expose the threads. The raising 
brush is used very lightly, and the laying brush should not be on 
very hard. 

A light steam brushing is next in order, and then the goods 
are ready for the press, where they are run with the face next to 
the hed. A moderate pressure is used and the face is thoroughly 
steamed on the press or steam brush. The usual after processes 
follow. 

SATINETS. 

Satinets are as low-grade as any goods manufactured, and are 
always piece-dyed and printed. They enter the finishing room 
about thirty inches wide and are finished twenty-seven inches. The 
lowest of low stock is used in them, the stockhouse of a satinet 
mill containing hardly anything but rags, which are converted into 
shoddy and then spun into yarn. 

Fulling. The burling is only superficial, and is followed by 
the fulling process. As a general rule, satinets are stuffed about 
as full of flocks as it is possible to get them; therefore, one-half of 
the flocks are given dry and the other half wet. It is quite a bit 
of study to get the required amount of flocks on the goods, and 
careful study of all the conditions is required to get them out in 
such a manner that they fulfil requirements. The fulling mills for 
such goods as these are generally toitJiout trajys, for the goods are 
not shrunk in length, being brought to width only, the main object 
being to get all the flocks on the cloth. 

It is often the practice to gig these goods before they enter 
the fulling mill, and in most cases this is found beneficial, if not 
overdone. As the nap thus raised must come directly from the 
threads, there is always danger of tendering them, for it must be 
remembered that there is practically nothing to hold the fibres 
together, and every fibre raised from a thread will leave that thread 
so much weaker. If the goods are gigged previous to the fulling, 
the flocks will take much better and the face will be covered closer, 
which is the chief aim of the finish. Satinets are supposed to re- 



220 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



213 



semble face-finished goods, and if the stock is fair, quite a respect- 
able looking finish may be obtained. 

5oap. After the goods are in the mill and the first half of 
the flocks evenly distributed, the pieces are ready for soaping. In 
satinet mills red oil is used for making soap. When this is the 
case the soap should be made as- follows: Four gallons of red oil 
are put into a barrel with sufiicient water to fill the barrel one- 
third full. Sixty pounds of soda ash or alkali are added and the 




Fig. 78. Parks and Woolson's Sanding, Pumicing or Polishing Machine. 

compound boiled for from six to eight hours. The barrel is then 
filled with water and the contents let cool. 

On satinets it is not of so much importance to have the soap 
cold, as on other classes of goods; in fact, it is an advantage to keep 
it warm, for it will stay combined better. This soap will thor- 
oughly loosen all grease in the goods and be strong enough to aid 
the felting. Four or six pieces are put in the rnill at one time, 
which would make two or three on each side. 

After fulling, the pieces are put in the washer and are thor- 
oughly washed. Yery often it is thought advisable to burr-dye 



20] 



214 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

them in the mill and if this is required, a burr dye of at least 24% 
strength should be made, and one quart used for each piece. This 
will usually be sufficient to cover all specks. Burr-dyeing in the 
fulling mill is mostly resorted to when the goods are piece-dyed 
in a primitive way, for if union dyes are used it is not necessary 
to use speck dye. 

Gigging. After washing, the goods are ready to be gigged. 
The gigging must be performed very slowly and carefully, and 
very little sharp work should be used. The goods will not stand 
much work in this respect, and therefore they cannot be handled 
as an all-wool piece or even as a mixed piece, which contains tol- 
erably fair stock. The gigging should be done with a view to 
saving all the fibres possible and the production of a smooth and 
well-covered face. It is not necessary nor advisable to gig down 
to the bottom. The top fibres should belaid as straight as possible 
without disturbing the bottom fibres excessively. 

The coloring follows next, black and blue being commonly 
used. The cloth is then dried, sheared, and pressed. 

BLANKETS. 

The finishing of blankets is chiefly done in the gigging, and 
unless the goods are made properly before they reach the finishing 
room, it is impossible, to finish them correctly. 

All the yarns should be made of stock which will felt easily, 
and which is of long enough staple to give the desired length of 
nap. They should be loosely twisted so as to facilitate the work 
of raising the nap, and also to make it unnecessary to put the 
goods in the mill. 

The goods should be thoroughly scoured with a good-bodied 
soap to help the softness of the goods and care should be taken to 
have them clean and well rinsed before- sending them to the gig or 
napper. The object here is to obtain a dense and long naj) which 
must also be well laid and still retain a certain loftiness. Almost 
any of the machines in use which are wide enough may be em- 
ployed on these goods, but as they run from nine to twelve quarter,* 
it will be easily seen that extra wide machines are required. Most 

*NoTE. — A quarter means nine inches; thus nine-quarter goods 
would be 80 inches wide; twelve-quarter goods, 108 inches wide, etc. 



229 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING. 215 

all the builders will make special widths of machines to order, 
therefore, any of the different machines may be used. 

After the goods are gigged and dried, they are brushed, meas- 
ured, and cut into suitable lengths for a pair of blankets; the ends 
where they are cut being nicely bound to prevent raveling. They 
are then folded. The nap should be nicely straightened by hand, 
as they are folded so as to have them in the neatest possible con- 
dition for the market. 

WORSTEDS. 

As there are so many different kinds of worsted cloths, this 
chapter will deal with light-weight and heavy-weight piece dyes. 
These goods inn&t he raside &s perfeci as possible in the hurling 
and mending and then go to the singeing machine for a thorough 
singeing, after which they are taken to the crab room and put 
through the usual process, giving them a medium pressure on the 
top bowl. They are then ready for the scouring process. This is 
best done with a liquor made of 4*^ pearl ash dissolved in water, 
which is about five or six ounces of the ash to a gallon of water. 
This liquor should be used in the washer, giving about three pail- 
fuls to a piece and adding to this about one-half pailful of a good- 
bodied fulling soap. The goods should be scoured thoroughly and 
then rinsed. 

As it is not desired to have much lustre on these goods, the 
steaming is omitted. If the goods need carbonizing it may be 
done at this point, after which they go to the dyehouse. When col- 
ored they need a good washing and a bath of fuller's earth, and are 
then extracted and dyed. 

Polishing. The next operation in order is back-burling, but 
as rubber rest shears are coming into use, this is omitted, so the 
goods go to the pumicing or sanding machine, of which an illus- 
tration is given at Fig. 78. This machine is the most economical 
to use, as it can readily be turned into a brush by removing the lays 
covered with sand and substituting brush lays for them. These cyl- 
inders being supplied simply with six arms, a space is left between 
each and this causes the lays to exert a kind of beating upon the cloth. 

The purpose of this machine is to polish the face and make 
the threads show clearly^ at the same time imparting a soft and 



2»8 



216 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



silky feeling to the goods. One or two runs are sufficient for this 
purpose if the goods have been singed; if unsinged, more runs 
must be given. The cloth is then ready for the shear. 

Shearing. This class of worsteds is closely sheared, but 
should not be scraped. On the rubber rest shear several less runs 
may be given, as it is possible to go down closer on the goods with- 
out doing damage; that is, if the shear is set properly. After 
shearing, the goods are pressed face up, with good pressure. They 




Fig. 79. Kinyon Bros.' Dampening Machine. 

are also steamed and rolled upon the press. This process will do 
for light-weights or simple fabrics. 

The heavier goods, or those having a wool back, are also 
singed, but fulling takes the place of crabbing. They are run in 
a fulling mill for fifteen or twenty minutes with a good strong 
soap and are then given a thorough scouring and rinsing. A mod- 
erate steaming completes the special processes these goods are put 
through, and is followed by the operations as in the previous 
descriptions. 



224 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 217 

FANCY WORSTEDS. 

One of the characteristics of these goods is that they are all 
yarn-dyed. Some goods which are called fancy worsteds, but 
really contain more or less cotton threads, are piece-dyed with 
wool dye, but these belong to another class. Fancy worsteds are 
often finished without being singed, but this is probably done 
more because a machine for the purpose is not at hand, than 
because anyone thinks the process should be omitted. 

On account of the colors, the washing has to be closely 
watched, and especially the strength of the soap. If this is not 
attended to, the more tender colors are likely to be damaged. 
There is no further departure from the process explained in the 
last chapter until it comes to the sanding and polishing. This 
must be very thorough, while the process must be watched so that 
the goods lose none of their strength. 

Dampening, After shearing and brushing as on all goods 
before they go to the press, it is often necessary to dampen worst- 
eds, and for this purpose the machine which is illustrated in Fig. 
79 is employed. The machine is very simple, the dampening 
being produced by forcing air through one set of nozzles while a 
drop of water appears at the point of the other. This water is 
taken by the air and spread as shown in the figure; A being the 
water nozzle and B the air nozzle. The air is supplied by a fan, 
and the water is contained in a box or tank at the side. The goods 
pass in front of the machine, being placed on the scray and pass- 
ing upward and back to the roll and folder, are folded off behind. 
This machine is used to give the goods additional weight and also 
to give them the right feeling, which is not desired to be too dry. 
From three to six pounds of water per yard can be put on the 
goods with this machine. The dewing, of course, must be done 
on the back of the cloth. After letting the goods lie a half -hour 
or so, they go to the press and are treated as previously described. 

SERQES. 

While these goods are made of worsted, they have a character 
entirely their own and therefore are generally classed by themselves. 

Serges are of rather an open nature, and while they are 
"made" in the loom, that is, do not require shrinkage in either 



225 



218 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



width or length other than what will be naturally entailed in the 
process, they are not as solid as most goods which are "made" 
there. After burling and mending, which are very important as 
the goods are clear-finished, they are ready for the singeing process. 
Where rubber rest shears are in use, the burling on the back is 
very slight and in many instances entirely omitted 

Singeing. The goods are then placed in a pile with the ends 
laid out, so that the top end of one piece is face up and the bottom 
end of the next piece is face down. This brings all the ends 
together, and face to face, and the pieces are thus sewed together, 
making of the whole pile one endless piece. The object of sewing 
all the pieces together is to facilitate the singeing process, which 
must be very thorough. Gas singeing should be used in prefer- 
ence to plate singeing, for the ilame of the gas will clear the face 
of all fibres in the twill which the plates cannot rea,ch. 

Crabbing and Scouring. After the singe dust is brushed 
ofif, the pieces are taken to the crab room and thoroughly Grabbed 
with solid pressure, and then taken to the scouring to be thor- 
oughly washed and freed of all impurities. The scouring process 
should not be extended too long in point of time, for there is 
danger of counteracting the effects of the crabbing. 

The fact that the heat employed in the second bowl of the 
crab during the setting process should be as high as that used dur- 
ing any subsequent process has been mentioned before. Few dyers 
care to boil goods more than is actually necessary for good dyeing, 
and when goods come along which do not show up clear enough, 
and where the effects of the crabbing have been practically de- 
stroyed, it is usually caused by using too much heat in the scouring 
process. There is very little dirt in these goods aside from the oil 
used in the worsted spinning process and the size used when dress- 
ing the warps. The latter is well loosened in the crabbing, and is 
therefore easily removed ; for this reason there is no warrant for 
extending the scouring operation. 

After the pieces are properly cleansed they are ready for the 
dyehouse. After being colored and rinsed with the usual bath of 
fuller's earth, which should not be omitted, they are ready for the 
dryer. 



236 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



219 



Drying. Many finishers look upon the drying as of small 
importance, but on serges this is an error. They require to be 
dried slowly, and for this reason the heat should be moderate and 
the dryer run slowly. On account of the construction being light 




and open, and therefore easily dried, it is often the case that the 
dryer is run at full speed, and the heat the same as would be 
required on 80-ounce goods: By this treatment the goods will be- 
come baked and lose much of the silky feeling which is one of the 



9167 



220 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

special features of serges. Much of the harsh feeling sometimes 
found in goods is due to drying with excessive heat. 

In large establishments the drying process assumes quite 
important proportions, but that is no reason why the goods should 
be neglected at this point after being carefully treated in previous 
operations. After the goods are dried they are looked over and 
specked, after which they are sheared. 

Shearing and Pressing. If properly treated up to this point, 
very little shearing is necessary. With a rubber rest shear they 
can generally be sheared satisfactorily with one run. They are 
then taken to the dewing or dampening machine and slightly 
dampened and are then ready for the press. 

The best results are obtained by pressing them on an apron 
press, of which Fig. 80 is an illustration. The goods are xy\xifac6 
up and receive a moderate pressure. . After leaving the press they 
are ready for inspection and the other final operations. 

DRESS GOODS. 

Dress goods as such, may be divided into two distinct classes, 
i.e.^ woolen dress goods and worsted dress goods. The nature of 
the former is such that they usually receive a finish similar to that 
given light-weight men's wear goods, and therefore do not need any 
special mention at this time. We will take up the subject of finish- 
ing worsted dress goods, as they require a line of treatment which, 
in many respects, differs radically from finishing woolen goods. 

In the finishing of dress goods, the finisher comes in contact 
with several machines which are not used in the usual line of fin- 
ishing; although in finishing. men's wear worsteds these machines 
might be introduced with profit. As far as the burling and mend- 
ing are concerned, it has been mentioned before in these papers 
that more care is required on worsted than on woolen goods, but 
on worsted dress goods this care must be increased. This, in a 
large measure, is due to the lightness of dress goods in general, 
and also on account of worsted dress goods, with the exception of 
cheviot serges, being finished very qlear. After carefully burling 
and mending the pieces they are ready for the next step, which is 
the singeing. 



228 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



221 



Singeing. As previously explained, two methods of singeing 
are employed; one being the gas and the other the plate singeing. 
The machines used for these separate methods have been described, 
and therefore it is only necessary at this point to discuss the rela- 
tive nierits of the two methods. Each of these methods has its 
good points, and, where dress goods are finished on a large scale, 
both ought to be employed. 




Fig. 81. Birch Bros.' Flat or Open Washer. 

Dress goods may be divided into the two classes of twilled 
2in6. fancy woven goods. "While twilled goods are classed under the 
common name of serges, they have various names when sold in stores ; 
a serge being regarded as a cloth of open texture. In the mills, 



229 



223 WOOLEJs A>fl> W^^'^KSTEP FTXTSHIS^ 

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jiiase ssBs^sr & ^ ^irss^feaasBit ems. hs na^ irMieii vill save 

CrxiMi^. Ax^r liie si2ijeis^ iats h&sm. cjaam jilted. liie paeees 
-&^t: iL&ksm 10 ■die erabMuis 3«siii£5iiBes„ "Wiem l3ae scods itaTe "been 
utssiKd sii i^is- larst • m a Krh-r-jntg sjiid are i^adr fen" tbe laexr txae. ir is 

^ane l^re :. ' _^ sm ^AtrM. mmi. to be ffllad ^iih. eoM «aier. 

" TW- "g ratfiiBiiing misaiitiHB -^rilsws. aJisi S.5 rbr- ^oods miasi be 
fkSvs:©d 4& iJitr "witdiier at a lffl«ir "iarEiJigSKtffiBE^ liie ae^ " :_- "- 

■m^ nETiV s&'viS: ■dae iDSBiaoing and sffib^fflia^^ msmi^ms -; i_3 ^' z.. 

besides ^.tIx^ imraii j ^Mids frtg^ "baram^B^ 'teaier; viadk is a cc- 

zxiss^ is _ _-_ : \_- ^ „= Irfcmg or t^rrTn"kr!ttg in liie 



WOOLEN AXD WORSTED FINISHING 



223 



Washing. For the purpose of washing, the flat or open 
washer, of which Fig. 81 is an illustration, is used. This machine 
has a patent guide and opener, which takes out all creases and 




wrinkles and keeps the goods open and flat during the operation. 
The machine is also provided with three rolls instead of two as in 
ordinary washers. The cloth passes through the machine substan- 
tially as through other washers, except that the goods are kept 



BSl 



224 



WOOLEN AND WOESTED FINISHING 



opened out. The manner of washing the goods differs materially 
from the washing of men's wear goods in that dissolved sizing 
being the only foreign matter in the cloth, it is simply rinsed out. 
The addition of pearl ash at the first crabbing-bowl takes care of 
what little grease or other impurities are present in the goods, and 
for this reason should not be omitted. 

If warm water is used it will, of course, hasten the process 
considerably, and ensure the lustre and soft feeling which are so 
desirable. After the washing a bath of fuller's earth is given 




Fig. 83. Side View of Wet-Finishing Machine. 

which will liven up the piece and show up the colors better, espe- 
cially if fancy colors are present If the cloth is for piece dyes, 
these also will be much improved by the bath, and be in better 
condition for the dyer, 

Wet=Finishing Machine, The method just described is being 
discarded, and one of the most important factors in bringing this 
about is the new wet-finishing machine, an illustration of which is 
shown at Fig. 82. This machine consists of a series of tanks over 
which squeeze rolls are set, and also of a number of guide rolls 
and stretchers. As will be seen in the illustration, the machine is 
very simple, all unnecessary rigging being avoided. In efiiciency 
it is equal to two crabbing machines. The line drawing at Fig. 



232 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 225 

83 illustrates the working of the machine. A and B are the 
squeeze rolls, while all the smaller rolls marked C are guide rolls. 
The cloth travels in the direction of the arrows. 

The usual way to proceed with this machine is to pass the 
goods into the first tank, which is filled with water at 120^ to 125^ 
F. They pass under a roll at the bottom of the tank and then up 
to and through the squeeze rolls, the pressure on which can be 
regulated by means of the hand wheels on either side. From the 
first tank and set of squeeze rolls they pass to the second tank, 
which is filled with boiling water and are there treated the same 
as in the first tank. From there they pass to the third tank and 
receive the same treatment. Then they pass to the fourth tank, 
which is filled with cold water, and when passing through the last 
set of squeeze rolls receive a hard pressure, and then pass to the 
top roll and folder and are folded off in smooth piles. 

About five per cent of pearl ash is added to the water in the first 
tank, or, if this cannot be procured, calcined soda or pure alkali 
may be used. Either of these latter substances will act detri- 
mentally on the fibre, making it harsh and brittle, therefore, pearl 
ash is much to be preferred. 

When' handling fine goods, it is a good plan to give them a 
light washing with dilute potash soap, and rinse, following with a 
bath of fuller's earth. This should be done in the washer. 

Sorting. Before the goods are sent to the dyehonse, they are 
carefully sorted over for dark threads, spots, and other blemishes. 
This is done for the purpose of keeping these imperfect goods from 
being put in the lighter and more delicate shades. 

After the goods are colored they are found to be in string or 
rope fashion, and therefore have to be straightened out. To do 
this by hand is at best a slow and tedious process, and would ma- 
terially increase the labor cost of the goods. For this purpose the 
opening or scutching machine is employed. (See Fig. 84.) The 
manner in which this machine performs its work is very simple, 
but effective, as may be readily seen in the illustration. The cloth 
comes in a twisted condition, the twist being beaten back by the 
two-armed beater. From the beater it passes between two spiral 
rolls, like Fig. 85, which take out any remaining creases or wrinkles. 
The cloth then passes between two other rolls and thence to the 



283 



226 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



folder, which folds it off in even piles. These machines should be 
in every woolen uiill, for the tendency to roping and rolling occurs 
quite frequently, and when these pieces have to be fold'ed out by 
hand much of the doubled listing is overlooked, causing bad work 
afterward. 




Pig. 84. Birch Bros.' Opening and Folding Machine. 

Drying. After the goods are straightened out, they are run 
•in the washer and well rinsed, after which they receive another 
bath of fuller's earth. They are then ready for drying, which is 
best done on a chain dryer. The drying should be done more by 
ventilation than by excessive heat, for the fabric will have a harsh 
feeling if dried quickly with high temperature. 



234 




a a 
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u 

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Pu, 
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■-] 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



227 



The goods slioiild be stretched to bring 
them to the required width, but if they are al- 
ready wide enough they should be kept suffi- 
ciently stretched to prevent wrinkles, which if 
dried in the goods are likely to be c%it on the 
shear. 

After the goods are dried they are carefully 
looked over, and shades compared with samples 
so that any difference may be detected before 
more labor is expended on them. If shades are 
not right the pieces are sent back to the dye- 
house to be made right, but if only an occa- 
sional piece is off shade, it is generally laid aside 
and used for darker shades or black. 

The following processes of finishing depend 
entirely upon the kind and quality of the fabric. 
Many of the lower grade worsteds do not need 
any shearing after drying, the singeing clearing 
them sufficiently to be immediately pressed. 
Better grades are shorn after drying so as to 
remove any fibres which may have been raised 
by the different manipulations of dyeing and 
.finishing, and the shears should be in good con- 
dition for the goods must be shorn entirely bare. 
Rubber rest shears are of great benefit in shear- 
ing worsted dress goods, therefore all shears used 
on such goods should be provided with the rub- 
ber tube. 

On some classes of dress goods it is neces- 
sary to give one or two* runs over the polishing 
machine in order to bring them out clear enough, 
and this will also help the feel of the goods. 
The gas singeing machine should be used in 
preference to the shear on fancy goods with raised 
patterns, for the shear will not clear the bottom. 
On goods which require a high lustre it is ad- 
visable to sharply steam the goods on the steam- 
ing machine, after they are through the wet-fin- 



K:: 



235 



228 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

ishing and before sending them to the dyehouse. In the case of 
high lustre cheviots, this steaming should be repeated after the 
goods are dry. When such a second steaming is deemed advisable 
the goods should be sent to the washer, if an open washer is at 
hand, and thoroughly rinsed with cold water. If an open washer 
is not used it is best to dry tiiem right after steaming. 

Padding Machine. When the shearing and such things are 
completed the goods are laid out in lots of from twelve to sixteen 
pieces and the ends sewn together, face to face. This is done to 
facilitate the work on the padding machine, ot which an illustra- 
tion is shown at Fig. 86. This machine consists of two heavy 
iron rolls, which are covered very smoothly with cotton cloth. 
The lower of these rolls is set in a tank so that it may be partially 
immersed in water or liquor, as the case may be, while the top roll 
may receive pressure to the desired amount by means ot screws 
and hand wheels. Two spiral rolls are placed in front of the ma- 
chine, their purpose being to prevent creases and wrinkles. 

If goods are of a heavy and stiff nature and have been singed 
instead of sheared, the tank is filled with boiling water and the 
goods passed under the lower roll, then between them and finally 
are either rolled up or drawn up over a framework and folded on to 
a stand. ' 

When cheviots and storm serges are run through this machine, 
a water proofing mixture is added to the boiling water. This 
solution consists of alum and lead, and may be obtained from 
dealers in chemicals and dyestuffs. A certain amount of this 
water proofing material is put into the water in the tank, and, 
after being well dissolved, the goods intended for water proofing 
are run through the solution. Care must be taken not to have the 
solution too strong, for, if used to excess, it will leave little white 
spots on the goods after they are dried. Goods so treated will 
shed water like the proverbial duck, and thus are very desirable 
goods for stormy weather. 

On hetter classes of serges, that is, the fine and closely woven 
grades, the goods require a certain amount of stiffening to show 
off the finish to advantage, and this is accomplished by using a 
solution of Irish moss. This moss, when boiled, forms a gelatin- 
ous substance which, when used in the proper quantities, gives the 



236 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



229' 



goods a certain stability and firmness which is very desirable. 
When wanted for use on thin goods about a pailful of this gelatin- 
ous product is added to about fifty gallons of water, and well 
dissolved by boiling. It is then strained and about four or five 
pails of this liquor are added to the water in the tank of the pad- 




Fig. 86. Two Roll Padding Machine. 
Manufactured by Textile-Finishing Machinery Co. 

ding machine and the goods run through, after which they are 
dried. The liquor should be kept near the boiling point while the 
goods a,re passing through, or the results are likely to be uneven. 
Drying. If the goods are dried on the ordinary tentering 
machines they will require a separate pressing operation, or rather 
two pressings; while if the proper facilities are at hand one slight 
pressing will be enough. To properly treat the goods, a machine 
is required of which Fig. 87 is an illustration. This machine is 



28T 



230 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

nothing more than a large copper cylinder and an endless felt 
apron, to which is added the usual stretching apparatus, to get the 
goods to the exact width. The large drum- is heated by steam 
and the pipe leading to it should have a safety valve connected, 
to allow the steam to blow off at a medium pressure, for it is not 
desirable to have too much pressure in the drum. 

As shown at Fig. 87, the goods are put on the chain with 
pins EE, which can be set to width. From there they go on the 
felt apron C, and travel with this around the drum A, which is 
driven by a belt on the farther side, and draws the felt along, so 
that after the goods are once laid on the apron they are not sub- 
jected to any friction, but simply pass around with the drum and 
apron, and are dried in the passage. This leaves the goods as 
smooth as if they were pressed. 

The guide rolls h h are only for the felt apron to pass over. 
After the felt leaves the drum the piece is taken, to F, the top roll, 
and G, the folder, and is nicely folded off. The wheels D D carry 
the chain and can be adjusted as the width of the goods require. 
This varies from 33 to 50 inches, for dress goods are seldom made 
wider than 50 inches, except storm serges, which are often made 
54 inches wide. 

Pressing. The pieces are then taken to the press room and 
doubled face otit and put in papers. The press papers used here 
are somewhat narrower than those used on men's wear, and when 
the pieces are put in the papers, or rather the papers put in the 
pieces, they are only put on the face of the goods. This makes 
papering up these goods much simpler. After the papering process 
is completed the goods are put in the press and generally pressed 
cold. Lustre goods are the exception to this statement, as they 
require to be hot pressed. After being, in the press about five or 
six hours, the goods are taken out, and after removing the papers, 
are sent to be examined. 

The final examination on these goods differs from that on 
men's®wear in that they are not drawn over a perch; but are laid 
on a table where there is a good light, and the several folds are 
turned over and closely examined. When the end is reached the 
piece is turned over and examined on the under side. All imper- 
fections are marked with a gum label and the allowance written on 



238 



WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 



231 



this, instead of putting in a string as on men's wear goods. After 
the goods have been carefully examined they are measured and 
rolled, or folded up ready for the market. 

To conclude, attention is called to the necessity of using sew- 
ing machines on dress goods whenever the ends need sewing 
together. This is not only necessary on account of the time thus 
saved, but on account of the lightness of the fabrics. A cut of one 
of these machines is shown at Fig. 88. The sewing part of this 
machine is the same as on any other chain-stitch machine, but a 
new principle is made use of- in the large wheel in front. Pins 




Fig. 87. Drying Machine. 

are placed on the surface of the wheel, and the cloth is hooked on 
the pins, thus using the wheel as a feeder. 

POPLINS. 

There are very few styles of dress goods which have retained 
their popularity as have poplins, or reps as they are sometimes 
called. The true merit of the weave is perhaps the reason why 
they have kept such a firm hold on the favor of the buyer. This 
is gratifying evidence that true merit is able in some instances to 
overcome the dictates of fashion. For instance, in England, which 
was at one time the only place where reps were made, they have 
been the most popular fabric for ladies' dresses for generations. 



?ao 



232 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

To insure a moderately perfect fabric the goods are first taken 
to the open washer and washed with a light soap and pearl ash 
liquor. They are then dried, and are ready for the burling. The 
hurling and mending can be done much easier by first subjecting 
the goods to this washing operation, and also can be done more 
thoroughly. On the lower grades the washing need not precede 
the burling and mending. Care must be taken when washing the 
pieces not to extend the process too long, for the weave has not 
yet been set, and if goods run long in the washer, they are apt to 
be "wooly" and lose much of their good feeling qualities; which 
it is impossible to re-impart in any of the later processes. 

After the mending process is completed the goods are singed^ 
and for these goods plate singeing is the best method.. Plate singe- 
ing, as has been explained before, imparts a certain smooth and 
silky feeling to the goods, which cannot be obtained by singeing 
with gas. After singing, the dust is removed by means of brush- 
inor, unless this work has been done on the singeing machine, as it 
should be. 

Crabbing. The goods are then ready for the crabbing process, 
and it may be stated that the continuous wet-finishing machine is 
much to be preferred for the finishing of these goods. Generally, 
enough attention is not paid to tlie best means of doing the work, 
and instead of reg-ulating; the machines to conform to the work to be 
done, the practice is to regulate the work according to the machine 
at hand. This proceeding is entirely wrong, and it can be easily 
seen that if one man finishes certain classes of goods with the ma- 
chines best adapted to them, it will be an easy matter for him to 
produce a better finish, with less trouble and labor, than another 
man who has to adapt his method of finishing to machines unsuited 
for the work. As the product of both places enters the same 
market, the better finished piece of cloth, of course, finds the 
readier sale, and at the better price. 

As it is more than likely that the student will encounter in 
actual practice many instances where machines have to be used to 
produce a finish which are way behind the times, it will pay him 
to study the methods on the old as well as the new machines, so 
as to be able to turn out commendable work no matter what kind 
of machinery he encounters. 



240 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 233 

If the old-style crah is used, the pieces are run on the 
first bowl under moderately hard pressure for twenty minutes, 
then beamed off and the roll stood on end for at least forty 
minutes. The goods are then run on the second bowl and receive 
twenty minutes in boiling water, under heavy pressure. When 
ready to be taken from the second bowl they are passed through a 
box filled with cold water, or if this is not at hand, are beamed 
off the crab roll on wooden rolls and left to cool. The method of 
cooling in water is much to be preferred, in fact it would be better 
to take the goods to the padding machine and there run through 
cold water, than to let them cool on the rolls. 

If the goods have been washed before burling, they are now 
ready for the dyehouse, but if not, they go to the washer and are 
thoroughly but quickly washed. Before sending them to the dye- 
house, they are submitted to the usual examination, that is, if they 
are for light and delicate shades; if for blacks they are sent to the 
dyehouse without this examination. After the pieces are colored 
they are opened and folded on the scutching machine. When dry 
the usual inspection takes place for the 'purpose of comparing 
shades, etc., after which they are ready for the shear. 

Shearing. These pieces must be sheared very clean, so a few 
rrtns on the polishing or sanding machine will be beneficial. How- 
ever, it often happens that the goods. come in such condition that 
it is impossible to clean them properly on the shear, even with the 
aid of the sanding machine, and when this is the case, they should be 
thoroughly singed o\:s. the gas-singeing machine. The singe dust is 
then removed and the goods taken to the padding machine and run 
through hot water, then dried on the machine illustrated at Fig 87 

The various shades passing over this machine, although clean, 
will in time leave the apron stained, so it is advisable to dry the 
more delicate shades, such as cream, rose, and light pink, on the 
chain dryer and then press them on the apron press. After that 
the pieces are taken to the press room and pressed hot for about six 
hours. Final inspection, measuring, etc., complete the operation. 

WORSTED CHEVIOTS. 

The Ijurli'iig and iiienduuj operations are performed with the 
usual care, for the absence of a fancy thread, particularly in the 



241 



234 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



plaids, is easily detected. The pieces then go to the fulling mill, 
and, as they are made quite wide on the loom, are shrunk to width 
and length according to requirements. A good bodied soap is needed, 
but too much alkali should not be used or it will spoil the fancy 
threads. 




Fig. 88. Birch Bros be^MOg Machine. 

After washing, which is conducted in the usual manner, the 
goods are extracted and folded, and then run on the steamer. They 
are steamed for about five minutes on each cylinder, the brush 
being set off so as to touch the pieces very lightly. They are then 
ready for the dyeing and subsequent operations. On the press 
they are run face down so as to add to the lustre, and enough 
steam is used to take off the press glaze. 



243 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 235 

When piece-dyed goods are bandied they go from the steamer 
to the dyehouse, and upon returning pass through the usual after- 
processes. 

BLEACHING WOOLEN GOODS BY THE SULPHUR PROCESS. 

The bleaching of woolen goods by the sulphur process, al- 
though in itself a very simple process, is attended with many 
apparently slight but important details. The fact is well known 
to all finishers that the lighter the color of the goods the more 
plainly will all little imperfections show up. On white goods 
every little speck is sure to assume very large proportions, simply 
by reason of the contrast. It is, therefore, of the utmost impor- 
tance that the proper stock be used in goods which are to be fin- 
ished white. 

Stock. There is no use in trying to produce a good piece of 
white goods if the stock is at all " burry " or has much vegetable 
matter in it. Even if the labor cost is increased in trying to bring 
such goods out right, they will be unsatisfactory. We will assume 
that this part of the work has been carefully attended to and the 
proper amount of care, necessary for good results, has been be- 
stowed upon the stock in the various processes through which it 
passes before becoming a piece of cloth. 

Washing. The washing should be very thorough, not omit- 
ting the rinsing, as it is essential that all soap be removed. After 
the pieces have been carefully washed and thoroughly rinsed, and 
before anything else is done to them, they should be carefully ex- 
amined and all those pieces which do not come up to the standard 
should be laid aside to be dyed. To do this thoroughly the pieces 
should be drawn over a table and every spot taken out if it is pos- 
sible to do so. After the goods are bleached these little things will 
show up and mean an allowance^ if nothing more. Very often a 
stain cannot be removed in the washing process, but when taken 
separately in this way it can be taken out with strong soap. 

This may be considered as rather too much bother and to 
entail too much cost, but it must be remembered that white woolen 
goods are only of the finest grades and that this labor will pay. 
Right here it may be pointed out that the more care taken in the 



5343 



236 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

selection of the stock, the less the cost will be for this item. If 
creditable goods are desired, do not omit this examination. 

Extracting. "When the goods have thus been caref ally looked 
over and everything corrected A'hich it is possible to correct, they 
may be finished in the usual manner up to the process of drying. 
Before they are put into the extractor it is. good policy not only to 
thoroughly wash the machine, but also to use a sheet over all 
exposed parts, so that the cloth may not come in contact with the 
ironwork of the basket. This precaution is of much value, and as 
it is not costly it should in all cases be adopted for white goods. 
After the pieces come from the napper or gig, they are carefully 
wrapped in sheets and are then ready for the bleaching process. 

Theory. The process here described is the method of bleaching 
woolen goods by the use of sulphurous acid gas. This gas is pro- 
duced by the burning of sulphur, the fumes of which are sulphur- 
ous acid gas. The goods are exposed to this fume or gas long 
enough to remove the varnish-like matter which adheres to the 
fibre, and which cannot be entirely removed in any other way. 
Much of this substance may be taken off by treating the goods to 
a strong bath of sulphuric acid, but the acid does not produce that 
whiteness and clearness obtained with the sulphurous acid gas. 

According to Thorn's sulphuring process, the goods are passed 
on a long chain up and down over a series of rollers which are 
placed in a small chamber, and this chamber is filled with sul- 
phurous acid vapors. In a short time the goods are thoroughly 
bleached. 

Operation. To avoid the expense of a bronze chain for 
removing the cloth, two rails are run lengthwise about a foot from 
the ceiling and about six feet apart, and a number of square sticks 
about six or eight inches longer than the distance between the 
rails, and about one and one-half inches square, are placed across 
the rails. Enough of the piece is folded to reach from the rails 
to within a foot of the floor and one of the sticks passed through 
the fold and placed on the rails. This operation is repeated until 
the pieces are all strung up and the chamber is filled. 

The sulphur is placed in an iron vessel, in which some. live 
coals have been placed, and this is put in a corner. The sulphur 



kS44 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 237 

will ignite readily and in a short time the fumes are so dense that 
the operator has to leave the chamber. The pieces are left for 
six to twelve hours according to the time at command. Where 
the production of white goods is continuous it would be much the 
better way to use a bronze chain, but where white goods are only 
made periodically, and then in small quantities, the plan described 
will answer very well. 

The chamber in which the sulphuring is done should be made 
as tight as j^ossihle to prevent the fumes from escaping, not alone 
on account of the bleaching process, but also because of their dele- 
terious effect on all animal and vegetable life. The bleaching is 
performed much more evenly and satisfactorily if the goods are 
put in the chamber in a moist state, although care should be taken 
that they do not contain sufficient moisture to drip, for this is apt 
to make the bleaching uneven. 

When possible, it is best to fill the chamber at night, that is, 
just before quitting time, and thus have the bleaching done over 
night. Put in sufficient sulphur to burn for about four hours, as 
this will give enough vapor for the process. Then in the morning 
open the doors for two or three hours before the goods are to be 
taken down, for otherwise it will be impossible to work in the room. 
When the goods are to be taken down, the floor should be well 
covered with clean burlap, when the pieces may be pulled down, 
tied up, and taken to the dyehouse or wash room, or wherever the 
next process is to be performed. 

Bluing. So far as the bleaching process is concerned, the fore- 
going description covers it completely, but that is the simplest part 
of the process, at least for those goods which are to be finished 
white. Such goods as are bleached for the purpose of enabling 
the dyer to produce brighter colors, as, for instance, cream, light 
pink, rose, etc., are sent to the dyehouse, but pieces which -are to 
be finished white will have to be submitted to a bluing bath, which 
gives them a more attractive appearance. Then also a very strong 
odor of sulphur adheres to the goods, and this has to be overcome. 

The pieces are first placed in a clean washer and thoroughly 
wet down and drained, after which the gates are closed and the 
washer filled half full of a solution of two per cent soda, which 
gives about two pounds of soda for every twelve gallons. Let the 



245 



238 WOOLEN AND WOESTED FINISHING 

goods run iii this liquor for about twenty minutes, then rinse for 
ten minutes with a good stream of water, and follow with the 
bluing process. 

Operation. Very often the bluing process is carried on in 
the washing machine, but this method cannot be recommended, for 
the goods are too crowded for the bluing to take hold evenly. A 
flat or open washer is better, but on account of the trouble expe- 
rienced in feeding on the bluing, the best plan is to use a dye kettle 
with a single reel or drum, passing the goods over this, opened to 
their full width. JNot more than four pieces should be blued at a 
time, as more will crowd the goods too much and make it harder 
to keep them open. Fill the kettle with sufficient water to cover 
the pieces, and after they have been around once or twice, com- 
mence to feed on the bluing. There are many good articles made 
especially for this purpose, any one of which will give good results 
if proper care is taken. Feed the bluing on sloivly and evenly, and 
then allow sufficient time for the pieces to go once or twice around. 

It remains for the individual who has to do the bluing, to 
learn through actual experience just how much to give the goods 
and how long to let them run, for these things do not conform to 
hard-and-fast rules, and what may work well on one set of pieces 
may not do at all on the next. Let the operator, through experi- 
ence, determine how much bluing he can put on with safety, and 
when this amount has been given and the goods have run through 
once or twice, let him take a small piece from the end of one of. 
the pieces, and after "squeezing it out well, compare it with the 
standard sample, which, of course, has also been wet out, for there 
is no use trying to shade a wet piece with a dry one. It can be 
easily seen whether more bluing is needed or not. As soon as the 
sample taken shows that the goods have enough, lose no time in 
taking them out and extracting. 

Drying. It does not pay to have white goods lie around any 
length of time after they have been blued, and for that reason it is 
well to have everything in readiness so that they can be dried at 
once. The up-and-down chain dryer is best adapted for these goods; 
but no matter what style of dryer is used it must be as clean as 
possible. All iron bars over which the goods have' to pass should 
be wrapped with white cotton cloth. 



J?46 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 239 

There is a style of chain dryer in use in many places, in which 
the cloth travels horizontally instead of vertically, and on this style 
especial care is needed to keep the goods from coming in contact 
with the pipes. Where the cloth runs vertically there is not much 
danger of this tronble, as the pipes are usually in the bottom, below 
w^here the cloth travels, and the air is forced by means of a fan. 
It is a good plan to have racks made of white wood slats and 
placed on the steam pipes, both top and bottom, so that in case the 
goods should sag they would come in contact with these racks. 

FACTS WORTH REMEMBERING. 

Many things which are worth remembering often escape our 
attention, and especially is this true of various small matters in the 
manufacture of woolens. Considering- the truth that this world 
is made up of small things, and that each and every one of them 
has its peculiar importance, it is well that these little things be 
remembered. 

Most of the points in finishing, which require attention, have 
been again and again emphasized in these pages, and at this time 
some of the things the finisher should know and remember, but 
which are outside 'of his department, will be mentioned. These 
are the relation of the previous processes to the finishing process 
and their influence upon its results. While, in many instances, it 
is beyond the power of the finisher to control or alter any of these 
previous processes, still a fair knowledge of these things may aid 
him somewhat in judging the probable cause from the effect. 

The influence of previous processes upon the finishing of 
woolen goods is of great importance, in so far as many defects 
manifesting themselves in the finished product are often laid at the 
door of the finisher. The first is the oiling of the stock in the 
picker house. Where this is done by hand it is often done care- 
lessly, unless the help is closely watched. If done carelessly or 
unevenly, a difference in the finished product will be noticed, and 
usually shows in shades, but as these shades will be mostly in the 
filling, it may be determined easily. If the goods shade well from 
side to center — but there is a difference from end to end — in most 
cases the above may be looked to as the probable cause. 



247 



240 WOOLEN AND WOKSTED FINISHING 

If the stock ^oes to the picker house in a moist condition, 
there is cause for future trouble, for if it is even slightly "-burry" and 
is not thoroughly dry before it goes to the picker house, not even 
a burr picker will clear the stock, with the result that the finished 
cloth will contain large numbers of burrs. This makes it neces- 
sary for the finisher to use stronger barr dye, with the consequence 
that the shade will be somewhat darker. The finisher will be 
blamed for this every time. 

The dyehouse often turns out uneven work and sometimes 
tender goods, but the dyer will fight as long as possible against 
admitting his department to be at fault; therefore, the finisher 
should remember to test goods for strength before sending them 
to the dyehouse, and again immediately after they are returned. 

The card and spinning departments being so closely related, 
they may here be treated as one. Aj\j difference in the size of 
the yarn is sure to create bad work which cannot be remedied, 
therefore the finisher should not be blamed for bad work caused 
by uneven yarn. 

The worst trouble of the finishing room njay be caused in the 
card room. In cold weather it is often diflicult to keep down the 
electricity in the card room, and one of the many ways to over- 
come this difliculty is by the use of alum. This is applied by 
dissolving a small quantity in water and sprinkling it over the 
stock, and while very effective in overcoming the electricity, is 
just as effective in making trouble for the finishing room. What 
alum will do may be illustrated by taking a dipperful of good full- 
ing soap and adding a small piece of alum, then agitating the mix- 
ture until the alum is dissolved, when it will be found that the 
.whole has assumed the appearance of curdled milk, which is due 
to the soap heing disintegrated, leaving the fatty matter as a 
gummy, sticky substance. If alum will cause this change, it is 
reasonable to suppose that if it is allowed to permeate the stock in 
the carding process, it will have the same action upon the goods 
after they are made up from stock so treated. 

The writer has seen a finishing room rendered useless by this 
proceeding, and it cost many dollars before the trouble was finally 
located and stopped. The only way to overcome such a thing and 
finish goods which contain such stock, is to "properly neutralise 



246 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 241 

tlie alum before attempting to full the pieces. This is done by 
running the goods in the washer in a bath of alkali solution made 
of four ounces of alkali to the gallon of water. Pearl ash, if it 
can be obtained, is better still, and of this three ounces will be 
enough. Each piece should be given four pailfuls of this liquor 
and run for about an hour, the liquor then being drawn off and 
the goods rinsed for about ten minutes. This is followed by a 
thorough scouring, after which the goods are dried, and then fulled 
in the usual way. This will extend the fulling process somewhat, 
bnt that cannot be helped under the circumstances. 

In the weave room several causes work together to produce 
bad and uneven results. If the filling is light, the goods will take 
more picks, or if the picks are not increased, the cloth will shrink 
more, which, in the end will amount to the same thing as putting 
in more picks. Suppose the filling is light and the weaver does 
not notice it, the piece will probably weigh somewhere near right. 
But take another piece woven with tilling a trifle on the heavy 
side, and therefore a little heavy when taken from the loom, and 
finish both pieces the same. The result will be that they will not 
look alike. If another weaver on the same goods gets light fill- 
ing, and is careful not to put in more picks than he gets paid for, 
the pieces are sure to be light and a third difference in the finish 
will be noted. 

These instances are quoted to show that the finisher must be 
on his guard constantly, and also must remember that not only 
must bad work be avoided in the finishing room, but had worh of 
■previous jjrocesses should he rectified if possible. 

During the hot months the finishing room requires more than 
ordinary care. The fiocks, being moist, have a tendency to be- 
come excessively heated in the summer months, if extra attention 
is not paid to them. The soap should also receive special. atten- 
tion, and any tendency to produce an excessively high temperature 
in the mills should be carefully looked into, to see if the soap does 
not furnish part of the cause. 

Free Caustic, if present in the soap, is apt to cause trouble 
at any time of the year, but more especially in summer when 
the conditions for overheating are favorable, is the presence of 
free caustic likely to work mischief, while the trouble is laid to 



240 



1 



242 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

some other source. Free caustic in hard soap is easily detected by 
the taste. .If present in quantity to do harm, it will disclose itself 
by a slight burning sensation on the tongue, which, in a neutral 
soap, wall not be noticed. 

Extra attention is required to keep the temperature in and 
around the fulling mills as low as possible, and when the goods are 
taken from the mill, they should be rnimedlately opened out to 
be cooled by the air. If the goods are allo\vBd to lie around in 
piles awaiting their turn at the washer, there is apt to be lots of 
trouble from stains, when, by opening the pieces properly, much if 
not all of this danger is removed. If the goods are examined over 
a perch before being sent to the washer, the air will cool them ofi' 
in good shape. 

If goods come out of the fulling mill the last thing at night, 
when it is impossible to get them into the washer to be cooled by 
water, they should be opened out in good shape and cooled by 
being pulled over the perch. While the practice of leaving partly 
fulled goods in the mill over night is poor policy at any time, it is 
folly in the summer season, and should not be tolerated. 

The speck dye should be closely watched in hot weather if the 
finisher would avoid making "seconds." The dye at this time of 
the year should be made of a strength to require a great deal of 
reducing with cold water, and the goods and water for rinsing 
should be cold. 

The flocks from the gig and cropping shear are moist; there- 
fore, if they are allowed to lie in piles they will soon heat. This 
unfits them for further use, for when fiocks commence to heat they 
turn sour, and it is impossible to remove the sour odor. When such 
flocks are used on cloth this odor will be imparted to it and no 
amount of washing or scouring will entirely remove it. This 
shows that care is required to prevent such a state of affairs. All 
mills are not fitted to dry these flocks handily, but a sheet can be 
obtained, and if the flocks are spread on it, they may be easily 
dried outdoors. 

Where face goods are handled, and where it is an object to 
have them lie in wet piles, they should be frequently overhauled 
so that they may not heat too much. 



250 




eej^-INCH MEASURING, DOUBLING AND ROLLING MACHINE WITH FOLDING ATTACHMENT IN 

OPERATION 

Parks & Woolson Machine Co. 



WOOLEN AND WOESTED FINISHING 



2i3 



CUTTING WASTE MATERIAL INTO FLOCKS. 

In many mills there is a good deal of fair stock going on the 
refuse heap, which might be used to advantage or be disposed of 
at a profit. This applies to a large part of the flyings swept from 
under the looms and to most of the flocks made by the fulling 




mills, most all o£ which should be carefully collected and cleaned. 
Flock Renovator. A machine for this purpose is illustrated 
at Fig. 89. This renovator is used for cleaning stock to be used 
for flocks. The stock is fed into the small end of the machine 
from the hopper, as shown by the dotted lines, and after being 



ZBi 



244 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

opened is blown through the outlet at the large end. by a fan. The 
machine is usually arranged to blow the stock into a small room 
partitioned off for this purpose. All nails, pieces of iron, and 
other foreign substances which, may be contained in the stock, fall 
into a receptacle near the bottom, thus leaving nothing in the 
stock that might injure the blades of the cutter when the stock is 
cut up into flocks. If flocks are not used in the mill, a readier 
sale and a better price can be obtained after the stock has been 
treated in this manner. 

Flock Cutter. For th-e purpose of converting this waste 
material into flocks, a flock cutter is required. An illustration of 
one of these machines is given at Fig. 90. The stock is run 
through the renovator as explained above, which mixes the several 
kinds in a thorough manner. It is then moistened by sprinkling 
it with soapsuds and beating in the suds with sticks. The stock 
is then ready to be cut, so is fed into the flock cutter by a hopper 
similar in shape to the one illustrated on the renovator. 

Operation, The flock cutter has an inlet near each end of 
the ' cylinder, and an outlet under each inlet. When the cutter 
turns in one direction the inlet on the right may be open and the 
outlet under it closed, the stock leaving by the outlet on the left. 
When the cylinder is reversed, as is necessary after a few days' 
cutting, the inlet and outlet are also reversed. The bed blades are 
adjustable so they may be kept in the proper relation with the 
cylinder to cut the stock in the best manner. Care should be 
taken not to bring the blades together too hard. The usual way 
of -reversing the cylinder is by using two belts; one a straight or 
open belt and the other a crossed belt, changing according to the 
direction in which it is desired to run the cylinder. 

The flocks should not he cut too fine^ for then much of their 
value is lost. To be sure they will go on the goods better, but 
they will also come off better, arid generally most of them will 
be evenly distributed over the floor and tables before the goods 
have a chance to leave the mill. The remainder may be found in 
the linings of the garments made out of such goods, shortly after 
the articles are bought. Most of the flocks bought in the market 
have this objectionable feature, and unless the stock is of more 
than usual felting capacity, such flocks will surely act in the above 



902 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



245 



quoted manner. For this reason alone, a finisher would find it to 
his advantage to cut his own flocks, for he would be able to cut 
them of a length that would be of benefit to the goods. 

Adjustment. After the machine has run for some time, the 
blades wear down, which is due in a large degree to the fact that 




the machine is self-sharpening. In time the knives of the cylin- 
der and the bed knives become so worn that they will not cut. 
Upon examination it is found that the knives of the cylinder have 
wooden lao-s screwed between them, and when the knives wear 



253 



246 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

down to the surface of the lags, the cutting will be somewhat like 
grinding. This must be avoided, for stock that is ground' into 
flocks is of no value, the grinding destroying what little felting 
cajjacity it had. When this condition has arrived, the lags of the 
cylinder are taken out and planed down enough so that about a 
quarter of an inch of the knife will be exposed. 

The blades at the bed also need raising, and for this purpose 
the bed is let down about one-quarter inch from the cylinder, then 
the cylinder is taken out. An instrument known as a setting bar 
and furnished with each machine, is now fitted into the two bear- 
ings of the cylinder and adjusted so that the pointer will show the 
exact size of the cylinder. The screws are now loosened, which 
releases the bedplates, so they may be adjusted by means of screws 
found underneath. Each blade is brought up to the pointer for 
its entire length and when all have been adjusted, the screws are 
again firmly screwed in so as to hold the blades in their position. 

Grinding. In ordinary usage the cylinder and blades seldom 
need grinding, but when the blades get worn down and the bottom 
blades have to be reset, the two must be ground together. If tlie 
knives become roughened by having nails or hard substances get 
between them a grinding is necessary. This is usually performed 
much after the manner of grinding a shear with emery and oil, 
except that a much coarser grade of emery can be used. But after 
all, this is a slow and tedious process, for the blades are thick and 
the grinding cannot be hurried for. fear of drawing the temper, 
which, with such a large surface, is easily done. When the plates 
are well ground together the machine is cleaned and the cutting 
operation can begin again; taking care to commence cutting with 
the cylinder running in the opposite direction to what it did while 
being ground. 

Another metJiod of grinding is as follows: After the blades 
have been regulated and the cylinder put in place, the cover is put 
down and secured. A pailful of sand is poured into the machine 
and' the inlets and outlets closed, after which the machine is run 
for an hour, gradually drawing up the bed. The sand is then let 
run out, and fresh sand mixed with common machine oil is poured 
in. This is run for one hour, and is followed by a third appli- 
cation of sand, mixed with a large proportion of oil. This mixture 



254 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 247 



is run for half an hour, when more oil is added and the grinding 
completed in another half hour. The machine is then cleaned out 
ready for use; having done in three hours what would take a day 
l)y the former method. 

When grinding or cutting flocks the cylinder should vibrate, 
and for this purpose the vibrator, which is found at the right end 
of the machine, must be looked after and kept well oiled. When 
the machine is in good condition and care is taken to reverse the 
cylinder when necessary, it will do good work. Care must also be 
taken when feeding the stock that no hard substances get into the 
machine. 

Thus all waste stock may be well taken care of, and even 
headings can be easily converted into flocks if the price paid for 
them is not as good as can be obtained for the flocks; besides pro- 
viding a better grade of flocks for use in the mill. 

CONCLUSION. 

As a rule the different subjects treated in these pages have 
been treated in detail, so all that is required here is a few words 
as to the general management of the finishing room. 

The only way to obtain success is to hold the help rigidly 
responsible for all work entrusted to their care. ISTever entrust a 
delicate piece of work to anyone unless you are sure he is able to 
perform the work satisfactorily. By holding each hand responsible 
for the work entrusted to him, and making it his duty to examine 
each piece for damage, and to report it., much trouble may b'? 
averted and the right person blamed for mistakes. 

The help should be made to understand that all tools and 
other appliances cost money, and are to be handled- with due care. 
Wrenches, trucks, and barrows will last much longer if handled 
carefully than if they are slammed around, and it is not any harder 
to handle them carefully, nor does it take any longer. Insist upon 
having a proper place for everything, and have everything in its 
placei this applies not only to tools but to the goods in process, 
which often have to await their turn for the next operation. 

When this is done the overseer will not have to go around 
and ask what this or that pile is for, but will know without asking. 



!55 



248 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 



These simple points together with courteous but firm treatment of 
the help will go far towards success. 

The different modes of treatment as advised in these pages 
have all borne the test of actual trial and have been found to give 
satisfaction, but it must always be taken into consideration that 
circumstances alter cases, and what may work well in one place 
and with one man may not with another, Stttdy the goods well 
and make up your mind to a certain mode of treatment, then give 
it a fair trial, and during such trial you may be able to see wherein 
your deductions were right and where wrong, and alter the treat- 
ment accordingly. No man can go into a new place and make a 
brilliant success off-hand, no matter what his experience may be; 
he must carefully study the goods and see how they act in the 
different processes. Always consider carefully what you are going 
to do, and in most cases there will be nothing to regret. 

The quality and quantity of work produced with specking 
and burling irons, although in a large measure dependent, upon 
the hands that use them, is still in just as large a measure depend- 
ent upon the condition of the irons. A good specker or burler 
will perform good work with poor irons, but not the quantity that 
she would produce if the irons were in the proper condition. If 
this line of reasoning is applied to the poorer class of speckers and 
burlers, it is at once apparent that if a good hand can do less work 
with poor irons, a poor hand will perform still less work with them. 

The type of iron most in use is the "Lingard," which is the 
old-fashioned pair of tweezers found in every mill in some form 
or other. These irons may be used with advantage for both the 
burling and specking processes, but it will not do to have them 
in the same condition for both kinds of work. If the iron is fixed 
in a manner to aid the burlers to do their work quickly and thor- 
oughly, it will be of little value for specking purposes. 

For burling, the chief use of the irons is to pull out threads, 
bunches, knots and so on, and the larger surface there is for this 
purpose the better. The sides of the irons are usually used for 
these purposes, the points being used more to pick up knots and 
runners. 

Of course on fine goods, where care has to be exercised so as 
not to disturb the combination of the several threads, the points 



256 



WOOLEN AND WOESTED FINISHING 219 

of the irons are used to a greater extent, but even then the shape 
of the point does not receive much consideration. Most of the 
work during burling falls on the sides of the if'ons, and it is 
necessary to have them sharjj, so that when a thread is taken hold 
of, it will be partly cut. 

At the specking table, a different condition of things is met, 
for the object to be removed is a small speck, which must be taken 
out without disturbing the surrounding surface. As shown in the 
explanation of burling, the larger the surface of the iron, the 
more it will take hold of, therefore in the case of a speck, which 
as the name indicates, is very small, it is not necessary to have 
such a large surface on the irons. In fact, the reverse is the case, 
for the finer the points of the irons, the easier it will be to get 
hold of the speck. 

If the speck is taken hold of in the proper manner, and 
with properly fixed irons, one lift should remove it in a neat man- 
ner, whereas if the points are large, many of the surrounding 
fibres will be disturbed, which leaves the cloth in a condition 
almost as bad as if the speck had been overlooked. Yery often it 
is necessary to send such pieces back to the shear to make them 
passable, while the operator gets blamed for a condition that she 
has not the power to prevent. The ends of the irons for specking 
should be brought to Jliie points well tapered and well smoothed, 
and of the same length. If irons are fixed in this manner the 
speckers will do more work and of better quality than if the irons 
are neglected. 

There are many other little things in the finishing room that 

should be looked after in the same manner, for it should always 

be the overseer's object to find these ''little things" and. improve 

them in such a manner- that the help may be able to do the most 

. work consistent with the highest quality, 

FINISHING COVERT CLOTHS. 

On account of the steady demand for Covert Cloths they have 
assumed an importance which makes it especially desirable for 
finishers of woolen goods to thoroughly acquaint themselves with 
the best methods of handling this class of fabrics in the finishing 
department. The finish which usually is given does not differ 



2&V 



250 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

materially from that which is used on face finished cassimeres, in 
fact, coverts are face-finished cassimeres, although they are known 
and sold under the name "Covert Cloths." 

Regarding the face finish for these fabrics, it may be stated that 
it is seldom used in its entirety except on the finer grades of cloths. 
Without doubt the saving in the labor cost in the production of the 
inferior article is an item which has been taken into close account 
in laying out these fabrics, and therefore it will be our purpose in this 
article to treat both the better and inferior grades of cloths, explaining 
the treatment they actually require, consistent with the cost of pro- 
duction. The better grade of cloth must receive first attention, 
although so far as the first stages of the finishing process are con- 
cerned; i. e., burling and mending, the treatment is nearly the same 
on all grades. 

Covert Cloths are made of double twisted yarns for both warp 
and filling, and are very firmly and closely woven. The present 
demands of the market .are such that even more stress than formerly 
is laid upon the strength feature of the cloths and it is of great 
importance to the finisher that he carefully note this item. 

Construction. If goods are laid out as they should be, it will 
be found upon examination that they are made with what is termed 
a warp twill ; that is, the twill is formed by a preponderance of warp 
threads. If the cloth is made in this way there will hardly ever be 
Hny trouble regarding the strength. If, however, as is often the case, 
che designer is trying to get the same results with a twill formed by a 
preponderance of filling threads, or by what is termed a filling twill, 
there is sure to be a great deal of trouble ahead for the finisher, 
unless the filling is exceptionally good. 

The heaviest strain in the production of a piece of cloth falls 
upon the warp threads, and therefore these threads are usually made 
stronger and better than is deemed necessary for the filling threads. 
Without good warp yarn the production of the looms will be smaller 
than it ought to be, in addition to producing cloth of inferior quality 
which creates extra work in the preparatory stages of finishing. 
Therefore, it will be seen that if- there is need of economy it is usually 
practiced in producing the filling. 

Burling and Mending. These operations, especially the former, 
are too often entrusted to incompetent hands, for it is held by many 



258 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 251 

that almost any girl can burl goods. This is a fallacy, however, 
for the saving at the burling table is more than balanced by the claims 
of the buyer. On these goods all the knots. must be drawn to the 
surface and left there for the shears to cut off. The drawing should 
be easy and the threads should not be unduly tightened. 

The mending process follows burling, and at this point it .may 
be said that it pays to have competent help. On all classes of goods 
where the several threads of the pattern are to show up plainly the 
mending process must be very thorough and be performed in such 
a manner that the face is practically as perfect as it can be made. 
The goods are then ready for the next step in the process. 

Fulling. Before the goods are put into the fulling mill, the 
listing or selvedge should be very carefully examined for, as a general 
rule, tightly woven goods have a tendency towards rolling and roping 
in the mill. It will be found that the looser the listing the faster it 
will full up, and if it fulls faster than the body of the goods, rolling 
and roping will at once take place. At this point an ounce of pre- 
vention or care will be found to be worth several pounds of cure in 
the form of hard work in trying to unroll and straighten the selvedges 
afterward. 

If, in the opinion of the fuller or finisher, there seems to be the 
least tendency toward rolling and roping, the safest plan is to at once 
tack the goods with very small stitches. While this will not wholly 
prevent the evil — for in such cases there is nothing which will prevent 
it — it will make the results very much better than they would be 
without tacking. After the goods are put into the mill the ends 
should be properly sewn together with very fine stitches. The use 
of small stitches is especially important as large and uneven stitches 
will surely produce streaks on the ends of the goods, which on covert 
cloths show up very plainly, and will therefore make it necessary to 
cut remnants from the ends of the pieces when the goods are finished. 

Sewing Machines are largely employed to sew the ends together 
and while they undoubtedly make a good, even and fine seam, there 
are a few points which make it preferable to sew seams by hand for 
fulling. A hand sewed seam can be made much flatter than one 
sewed by machine and therefore will not cause so much pounding in 
the mill. Pounding is harmful to the machine, for it has a tendency 
to loosen bolts and nuts, and, unless the fuller is very careful and 



?59 



252 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

examines his machine frequently, there is always danger of damage 
being done on this account. In addition to this it often happens 
that through the pounding the threads of a machine-sewed seam 
become broken and ravel, with the result that the goods are often 
found lying at the bottom of the mill when they are supposed to be 
running. This does not necessarily cause any damage but it has a 
tendency to upset calculations somewhat. 

Shrinkage. The finisher should now be ready for the calculations 
in fulling. It must always be borne in mind that the loss which the 
goods will sustain during the entire process of finishing must be taken 
into account at this stage, for there is no other opportunity to make 
good a loss. Of course, there is no absolute rule in regard to the 
actual loss which will be sustained, and experience is the only guide 
that can be relied upon. It is here that experience is of especial 
assistance in determining beforehand the probable amount of loss 
to be sustained. The more correctly this is determined, the nearer 
correct the final results will be. 

The actual calculation after the loss has been estimated ought 
to be sufficiently well known not to need any special illustrations. 
However, the fact remains that all men engaged in operating fulling 
mills are not especially fitted, in point of education, to cope with the 
problem successfully and it usually falls to the lot of the finisher to 
supply this deficiency. A schedule has been embodied in Part I, 
of "Woolen and Worsted Finishing," which will be found of especial 
value to the overseer in that it will lighten his labors materially, and 
also to the poorly educated fuller in that it will supply his deficiency. 
In this schedule there may be found the results of calculations covering 
goods froin eight ounces, finished weight, to thirty ounces, and with 
an estimated per cent of loss ranging from ten to twenty -five per cent. 
This will be found to embrace nearly all kinds of goods and there- 
fore contains something of value to the worker of most finishing 
departments. 

In this schedule the one using it has to know only three things; 
viz., the weight per yard from the loom, the finished weight per yard 
wanted, and the estimated per cent of loss which the goods sustain in 
the process. In the first column, on the left of each page, will be 
found the weight of goods from the loom given in ounces and half- 
ounces per yard. In the spaces at the top of each column of figures 



260 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 253 

will be found the per cent of loss sustained in the process, indicating 
that the figures below give the required shrinkage per yard when the 
loss is as indicated in the space on top. Next, on a line with the weight 
from the loom, as given in the left-hand column, will be found two 
rows of figures, the upper one being in common type and the lower 
one in italics. The figures in the upper row denote the finished 
weight wanted and the italics in the lower column denote the amount 
each yard must be shrunk in inches and tenths of inches, in order to 
produce the weight per yard of the figure immediately above it. 

Thus if a piece of cloth is to be fulled which it is estimated will 
lose twenty per cent in the process, and the weight per yard is 26.5 
ounces and the finished weight per yard wanted is 27 ounces, all tiiat 
has to be done is to look in the column headed by 20% and then 
follow the left hand column down until the weight per yard from the 
locm is found. In the 20% column behind 26.5 will be found the 
figures 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27. The latter being the finished weight 
wanted, the figures immediately below, which are in italics (7:5), 
indicate that each yard of the piece will have to be shrunk 7.5 or 
7| inches in order to produce the desired result. 

After one or two trials these schedules will be found of so much 
assistance in the fulling room and to eliminate such an amount of 
endless calculation that one will wonder how one ever got along with- 
out something of that nature. 

The most convenient method of preparing goods for the measuring 
process in the fulling mill, as has been stated before, is by tying a 
string in the listing, about one yard from the end and another string 
exactly one yard from the first one; then measure the strings as the 
goods shrink until the desired shrinkage has been reached. 

Another plan, adopted by many, is to measure off a yard, plus 
the amount to be shrunk, and to mark this space by strings; then to 
shrink the goods until the distance between the strings measures 
just one yard. As will be evident a yard in the latter instance is 
not shrunk as it ought to be, for if a yard is taken, as in the case noted 
before where the shrinkage is to be 7^ inches per yard, and the 7^ 
inches added to the 36 inches measured, it follows that 43^ inches, 
are shrunk to 36 inches instead of 36 inches being shrunk to 28^ 
inches as should be done. 

W^ith even the closest figuring considerable judgment has to be 



261 



254 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

exercised at this point to have the pieces come out right as to weight, 
and the subsequent operations, all of which tend to stretch the goods, 
will have to be considered. It is therefore always best so shrink 
the pieces somewhat more than the actual amount figured on in order 
to provide for this stretch. 

For instance, if goods are shrunk three inches per yard in the 
fulling mill and stretch two inches per yard in the washer, good 
results cannot be expected. Stretching is something which cannot 
be calculated accurately; it may be much in one piece and less in 
another, but if the goods are set up in the mill good and strong, that 
is, somewhat more than is required, they will be very much less 
likely to stretch, and they will come out nearer right for weight. 

Another thing which exerts great influence at this point is the 
length of the pieces. Uneven length is a fruitful source of trouble 
inasmuch as it makes it difficult for the fuller to obtain sets which 
will run well together. Also if a piece of forty yards or more is put 
in the washer the stretch is likely to be much more than it would if 
the piece were only thirty-five yards long. There is no good reason 
why goods should come in this way from the weave room but they 
often do, which goes to show that uniformity is an element the im- 
portance of which does not seem to be understood in some weave 
rooms at least, and it behooves the finisher to have this condition 
remedied or to take the blame for unevenly finished goods. 

Soap. As a good finished piece of covert cloth requires from 
four to five hours fulling, the soap question is a very important one. 
Nothing but a pure palm oil soap should be used on them to insure its 
easy removal in the washer and the soap should be made heavy 
enough to last through washing. Four to five ounces of a good 
neutral palm oil soap and two ounces of pure ammoniated alkali 
will produce a soft soap which will be found all that can be desired 
for these goods. 

After the pieces have been properly fulled and taken from the 
mill the first operation should be the removal of the tacking twine, 
if such has been used, and a thorough opening out of the pieces, after 
which it is good policy to pull them over a perch and examine care- 
fully. This part of the work should in all cases be performed imme- 
diately after they are taken from the fulling mill and before the 
machine is again started up. If for any reason a nail or some other 



5?<52 



vVOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 255 

hard substance has got into the mill or a nut or bolt has become 
loosened, thus causing damage to the goods, is should be known 
and the matter remedied before another set of pieces is spoiled. 

Washing. This operation should be conducted with warm 
water if the facilities are present, and in all cases should be thoroughly 
conducted. The soap must be well rinsed out of the goods or a good 
finish cannot be obtained. 

After a thorough washing the goods are taken to the rolling or 
stretching machine and are here tightly rolled up and laid down 
flat on skids to drain. Lying thus over night they are found to be 
in the very best condition for the napping process which follows. 

Napping. Although teasel gigs are still used to quite an extent 
for covert cloths, it is evident that the better and more even work 
produced by the napping machine will eventually drive them entirely 
out of the finishing room. Of course, various opinions prevail, one 
being that for fine work the teasel gigs cannot be supplanted by any 
other machine. This, however, has been disproved and the point 
will not be taken up further. 

The felt may be raised by whatever means are at hand, care 
being exercised not to strain the cloth unduly nor to pull out too many 
fillers. 

When the felt has oeen partially raised and combed out, the 
goods should be taken to the shear and given a good cropping. They 
should not be sheared too low, but enough runs should be given to make 
sure that the shearing is even. The cloth is then returned to the 
napper for the final clearing out process. These goods being made 
of double and twisted yarns will not show as much felt on the face as 
one would expect after four or five hours' fulling, but the body of the 
fabric is well knitted together, making a fabric which will show wear- 
ing qualities of superior merit. 

After the napping has been completed the pieces are taken to 
the washer and each piece is given two or three pailfuls of a solution 
of fuller's earth and allowed to run in this bath for fifteen minutes. 
It is then rinsed for ten minutes with cold water. The cloth is then 
taken out of the washer and taken immediately to the wet gig to 
receive four runs each way, after which it is again tightly rolled up 
and the rolls stood on end -over niffht. Next morning the cloth is 



263 



256 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

extracted and dried. After a careful inspection on the back for 
knots the pieces are ready for steam brushing and then for the final 
shearing. 

The nap is not very thick or heavy, biit nevertheless it is best 
to go down slowly on the cloth and to give plenty of runs. The 
threads are supposed to show up plump and clear, therefore the 
pieces will have to be sheared quite low, but in no case should they 
be scraped, as this will destroy the soft and silky feeling which it has 
been the aim to obtain. 

After shearing the pieces are again given a steam brushing 
and then a hard pressing with the face up. A steam brushing after 
pressing practically completes the finishing process and the final 
operations of measuring, rolling up, etc., are carried out. 

This finish will give satisfaction to the most critical buyer and 
it lends itself admirably to many changes which on some classes may 
be thought to be beneficial. The cheaper grades of covert cloths 
cannot, however, be treated in this way, even if it should be thought 
worth while to spend the required time on them. As a usual thing 
one of the threads of the double twisted yarns used on the cheaper 
grades of cloth is white cotton, and the chief object is to bring the 
goods out as bright and lively as possible. For this reason the 
chief departure from the previous way of finishing is at the point 
where the goods come from the washer. 

Of course, the fulling operation is not so long as on the finer 
goods, for the cheaper grades will have to be made more solid in the 
loom so as not to need the fulling. From one to one and a half 
hours' fulling is the general rule. Washing follows and is in turn 
followed by a bath of fuller's earth, the object of which is to improve 
the feeling somewhat, although it is a difficult matter to make a 
cotton thread feel as soft as wool. 

When the goods come from the washer they are at once extracted 
and dried; the napping being done in the dry state. Very often the 
pieces will not be so clear and bright after they are dried as they 
appear to be when they come from the washer, and especially is this 
noted when they lie around in a wet condition before being dried. 
In such cases it is advisable to follow the bath of fuller's earth with a 
bath of salt water made of about twenty-five pounds of salt to a barrel 
of water, giving each piece two pailfuls of this brine, and, after letting 



S64 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 257 

them run in it for five minutes, to extract and dry. This treatment 
makes the goods bright and clean. 

The gigging or napping is a short process. The nap will be 
found to be thin and light, on account of which the threads will 
show up clear and bright even if the pieces are not sheared so low 
as the finer grades. In fact it is advisable not to shear them any 
lower than is actually necessary to make the threads prominent,- 
for every fiber of nap left on the face adds to the soft feeling of the 
goods. 

Much judgment must be used at this point in order to turn out 
acceptable goods. The pressing must not be so hard as on the finer 
grades, for to remove the press glaze thus created will mean extra 
labor and this certainly means extra cost. Therefore they are pressed 
somewhat lighter and the steaming arrangement usually found on the 
press is relied upon to remove what glaze has been created. 

Although these goods are finished in imitation of a better article 
they possess certain merits of their OAV^n. One peculiar feature about 
them is that the less work that is expended on them the better they 
are apt to look when finished, provided the finisher knows where 
to put in the work and where to omit it. While fine goods require 
much care in handling, as a usual thing there is little trouble v/ith 
them, but the cheaper grades cause no end of trouble unless they are 
handled just right. 

NAPPING GOODS FOR A FACE FINISH 

There is no doubt that fulling a piece of woolen cloth prac- 
tically makes a certain kind of finish possible or impossible, as the 
case may be, therefore it is not well to underrate this part of the fin- 
ishing process. It is, however, a fact, that even when given the best 
of foundations for the finish in the fulling process, not every finisher 
is competent to produce a satisfactory face finish. This is due in a 
great measure to the fact that very few finishers really understand 
what is required for a good face finish. The idea that all that is to 
be done to get a good nap is to break up all the felt on the face of the 
goods and comb out the fibers carefully is, to say the least, very 
erroneous, for by doing this the principle of saving fibers to strengthen 
the nap is lost sight of entirely. 



8«5 



258 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

Those who have in a measure learned the advisabiUty of saving 
fibers are, therefore, much inchned to favor, above any other method, 
the teasel gig as a means of napping. It is not our purpose to enter 
into discussion of the merits of types of machines, for this subject 
has been thoroughly treated before, but we cannot forbear again to 
point out why the disadvantages claimed against the napping machine 
are only imaginary. 

While it has been proved again and again that the napping 
machines of to-day are able to produce any desired finish that is 
equal in quality with the finish. produced by the teasel gig, it must 
also be taken into account that one of the chief points of merit of 
these machines is the speed with which the work is performed. Even 
assuming that the quality of the finish should be — as it is not — below 
that of the teasel gig, this difference is certainly more than ma'de 
up by the extra amount of production from these machines. The waste 
is so much less than what is produced on the teasel gig that this 
point of merit alone will, in the estimation of the finisher who knovv's 
the value of fibers when finishing face goods, place the napping 
machine far ahead of any other agency. Every fiber which is thus 
saved improves the finish, for it will make the nap just so much 
thicker. 

We must admit that appearances are largely against this con- 
tention, but when it is taken into account how much work is turned 
off by a napping machine in a given time, over what can possibly be 
produced by the teasel gig in the same space of time, there should be 
no surprise that more flocks make their appearance than are made 
by the teasel gig. It is also quite an easy thing to lose sight of the 
amount of flocks which adheres to the teasels and which is not taken 
into account. 

The grading of the teasels for a good face finish is a very intri- 
cate matter and requires not only care but a thorough knowledge 
of the working capacity of the teasels. And very few men really 
acquire this knowledge. Therefore the gigging process on face fin- 
ished goods always has formed the most important part of the fin- 
isher's work. 

With the napping machine the certainty of having the same 
napping energy where the same speed of ithe workers is used, week 
in and week out, makes it a very much easier matter for the finisher 



266 




l»«fi£«d«ilMM»j 



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WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 259 

to produce a uniform finish on his goods, and, once he has established 
a certain fine of action on a given line of goods, he is sure to be able 
to produce the same result right along, so far as the napping is con- 
cerned, and if the finish should not come up to the required standard 
it is almost certain that he will have to look for the trouble at the 
fulling end. 

All illustrations of how the napping ought to be done must of 
necessity be based upon the felt the goods have received in the fulling, 
and for this reason it is often the case that these illustrations do not 
give the satisfaction in actual practice which is expected of them. 
While the fuUing of goods varies to such an extent that no two mills 
may be said to work alike in this respect, there is, however, a cer- 
tain standard which must be acquired by all in order to give good 
results. This standard is a good, close, and solid felt. 

All pieces should be examined carefully before being allowed 
to pass to the napping process and any which are in the least below 
the required standard should either be treated separately or, if advis- 
able, be returned to the fulling mills in order to get a better foundation 
for the napper to work on. If any threads of the fabric are discern- 
able on the face when the piece is ready for napping there is no use 
to try to get a good face, for a nap cannot be obtained from the thread, . 
and all work expended will weaken the fabric. But if a good close- 
felted piece is put on the machine the work to get a good nap may be 
carried on as given in the following illustrations with a certainty of 
good results. 

For example, let us take a well-felted piece of doeskin and put 
it on the napper. To start with it will be noticed that the nap, if 
laid, will point in the opposite direction from what we are used to 
having it on the gig. Hence a change has to be made at the start, 
the goods being run on the machine in the order that is termed tail- 
end first. 

As soon as the piece has been sewed on the leader the speed of the 
workers is attended to, being adjusted so they will revolve at the 
slowest possible speed. This stage corresponds to the old or worn 
work on the gig, with the difference that it is more uniform. The 
piece is then run over the machine, that is, given just one run and 
then taken off and reversed, that is, turned so that the end which 
was last in the first operation will be first in the second operation. 



267 



^60 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

The piece is then run over the machine again, having first in- 
creased the speed of the workers one step. This will turn the nap 
in the opposite direction from the first run and is done to get at the 
fibers, which it would otherwise take a good deal more work to reach. 
After the second run the piece is taken off and again reversed so that 
the nap will be laid this time in the same way as at the first run, and 
after again increasing the speed of the workers the piece is given 
another run. It is then taken off and sent to the shear for a cropping, 
which should be thorough but not too low, the main object being 
to even^up the length of the nap before the final work is given. 

If the piece is examined, as it should be after every run, it will 
be found that most of the felt has been combed out and that only 
a very little remains to be raised from the very bottom. After crop- 
ping the piece is returned to the napper and again put on the machine 
as on the first run, that is, tail-end first, and the speed on the workers 
is put at the fastest speed obtainable. One run is usually sufficient 
but on very fine goods it may be advisable again to submit the piece to 
a cropping, and after that to another run over the napper. The 
result of this treatment will be a very thick and full nap, such as can 
be produced on the teasel gig only with the utmost pains and care. 
If such a piece is put on a double acting napping machine proceed 
as follows: Place the workers of both series on their slowest speed 
and after giving the goods one run send them to the shear to be 
thoroughly cropped. When the goods are returned after cropping 
the speed of the straight workers is increased one step, but the speed 
of the reverse worker is not changed. Give another run and crop again 
and then give one or two runs with the straight workers at their 
fastest speed and the reverse workers increased just one step. The 
results thus obtained will delight the finisher. 

It should be remembered, however, that it is poor policy to give 
all goods a certain prescribed treatment for by so doing it will be 
found that in the end there will be several grades of goods ; some being 
termed "excellent," others "fair," and very often some will be termed 
"poor," Goods should always be given what they require, no more, 
no less. If this plan is followed the results will be very much more 
even and satisfactory. For instance, if it is found that all the felt 
has been raised on a piece it is poor policy to give that piece any more 
work or to give it a run with the workers on fast speed, just because 



268 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 261 

another piece needed this treatment to bring it out right. Never try 
to improve the nap by working on the thread for that cannot be done 
and if tried the goods will look very much worse for it in most cases. 

Another illustration is the napping of a piece of beaver. These 
goods most always imply cotton warps and often considerable cotton 
or other low stock in the filling, more particularly those of the lower 
grades. As an example we will take a piece of this latter grade. 
On these goods it is sometimes a very hard matter to produce a good 
face and also it is oftentimes very hard to get the back covered as it 
should be. Therefore the napping on these low grades commences 
in the dry state before they go to the fulling mill. They are given a 
run on each side with the workers on medium speed, in order to pro- 
duce something that, will felt together and serve as a basis for the 
finish. 

If a double acting napper is used the speed of the workers for 
this preliminary napping should be placed at the lowest point, but 
after all, such things must be finally regulated at the machine where 
the results of the treatment are at once apparent. Very often a con- 
troversy arises as to which side should be treated first, the face or 
the back, but this is really immaterial except as it may fit into a system 
for the regulation of the work. The general method is to nap the 
back first. 

After the goods have been napped on both back and face they are 
sent to be fulled and washed. When they are again ready for the 
napper it is well to give them a light run on the back first with the 
workers at their slowest speed. When this has been done the back 
should be carefully examined, as it will be quite a guide to the method 
which should be adopted for the face. If the back is well covered the 
face will stand more work than it would if the back is only imperfectly 
covered, for the latter shows that the felt for a nap to cover the threads 
is lacking, and if lacking on the back there is no reason to expect 
it to be much better on the face. Therefore, regulate the face napping 
according to the results on the back and give one run with the workers 
on the slowest speed. Then examine carefully. 

If there is still any felt left on the bottom give another run without 
changing the speed of the workers. This run will generally tell 
what is needed, but in most cases it will be found about all that the 



269 



262 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

goods can stand, for not alone is a good finish required but the strength 
of the goods must not be impaired in the least. 

The goods should be tested for strength at every stage of the 
napping and before they go to the napper, for in this way only can 
the finisher hold sufficient check on the work. When the double 
acting napper is used on such goods give them a run on the back at 
the slowest speed of the workers and after examining the bac'k give 
the goods the same amount of work on the face, not forgetting to 
examine them carefully for strength. 

In most cases one run on the face will be found sufficient but if 
it is not and the goods show no decrease in strength the face may 
be given another run in the same way. This will be found to be 
enough and the goods will be clear with as thick a bottom nap as 
the nature of the stock will allow. 

TROUBLES MET IN THE FINISHING ROOM. 

Many difficulties which he is called upon to overcome in some 
way are met by the finisher, and the frequent recurrence of which 
he must prevent. Many of these difficulties and troubles are very 
often due to causes over which the finisher himself has no control; 
but that matters little, and while in such cases he probably is not in 
a position to prevent their occurring again at some future time, he 
is nevertheless called upon to remedy any ill effects which come to 
his notice. 

When the goods reach the finishing department it is of course 
too late to prevent previous bad work, therefore, all the knowledge 
and skill of the finisher should be employed to bring the goods out 
right, or at least as near right as it is possible to get them. That this 
is, in many cases, a very difficult proposition cannot be denied, 
but it is in difficult cases that a good finisher shows his value. In 
case a man is lacking in experience, any kind of trouble he meets 
should be welcomed as an opportunity to remedy this deficiency. 

This article has not been prepared for the purpose of making 
things easy for the student, for if it were prepared in this manner 
it would in the end defeat its own purpose. It is intended simply to 
call attention to and point out the various troubles one is likely to 
meet, and to the remedies which have been employed by others. 



270 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 263 

If the student thinks he has nothing to do but apply the remedies 
suggested he will soon find that while they may fit some cases they 
will not fit all. The ability to reason backward, that is, from the 
effect to the cause, is required at all times, and this of course makes 
it necessary for one to know the effects certain causes are likely to 
produce. 

There are many things which, though trivial in themselves, 
cause a great deal of trouble. We will not attempt to enumerate 
them. It will be our purpose to mention some of the more frecjuent 
ones and then find their source and give a remedy which has been 
employed to overcome them and found to be efficacious. 

Fulling. The troubles encountered in finishing woolen goods 
usually start at the fulling process, and at this point several difficulties 
are often met which fall to the lot of most fullers. The most frequent 
of these is the knotting and catching up of the goods in the mill. 
On most of the fulling mills used at present this trouble is not of such 
great importance for much of the danger of damage to the goods is 
removed by the use of stop motions with which most of the modern 
fulling mills are supplied. But even with a stop motion on the 
machine there is some danger of damage if the fuller does not make 
sure that the mechanism is in good working order. 

When the machine is empty and before putting in another set 
of pieces, it takes but a minute to test the stop motion and to fix 
it if it does not work properly. This will take but a few minutes 
at the most and it is certain that these minutes cannot be employed 
to better purpose. However, where the machine is supplied with a 
stop motion and has not the friction clutch pulley, a constant watch 
has to be kept, for, while the belt travels from the tight to the loose 
pulley, damage is apt to be done in case the goods catch up. 

The causes for the catching up and knotting of goods in the mill 
are as follows: First, the condition of the machine, and second, the 
manner of putting in the pieces. By carefully observing conditions 
it may be noticed that this trouble does not occur where there 
is only one piece running on a side and that straight away, but only 
in cases where there are two or more pieces run on a side of the mill 
or where the pieces have been doubled. This shows conclusively 
that there must be a difference in the length of the pieces or that proper 
care has not been taken to measure the pieces before running them 



271 



264 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

doubled into the mill. Therefore, if the fuller will make certain 
that the several pieces are of the same length he will have solved the 
problem. 

It is wrong to think that a difference of one yard in length will 
not make any great difference in the running of the pieces, for it cer- 
tainly will and sooner or later the fuller will have this fact impressed 
upon him. Too much care cannot be exerciseid on this point, for 
it will pay for itself in the smooth running of the operation. 

Doubling. When pieces are to be doubled the measuring must 
be done carefully or there is sure to be trouble. Assume that the 
fuller has been very careful in this respect and that there still is 
trouble with catching up. In this case the fuller may at once make up 
liis mind that there is no use looking for the cause of trouble in his 
direction and turn his attention elsewhere. As soon as the mill is 
empty let it be closely examined and it will be found that either the 
rolls are badly worn out of true and therefore need immediate at- 
tention in the repair shop, or the machine needs levelling up. When 
these things have been properly attended to things will run along all 
right and there will be no further trouble. 

It shows very little reasoning power on the part of either the 
fuller or the overseer to run along for months under such conditions 
and to keep guessing as to what the cause is. There is no room for 
guesswork in the finishing room for there is a good reason for every 
trouble that shows itself. It certainly is the duty of the finisher to 
speedily find out the reason and remedy the trouble. 

Next to the knotting and catching up comes the trouble of rolling 
and roping of the goods in the mill. The cause for this kind of trouble 
is to be looked for outside of the finishing room and may be readily 
located either in the weave room or in the designing end of the mill. 
However, there is no use in putting goods in the mill and expressing 
surprise when they are found to be rolled into a tight rope for this 
might have been discovered before the pieces were put into the fulling 
mill. This trouble is always found on tightly woven goods with a 
poorly constructed selvedge or list and is due to the list being looser 
than the body of the cloth, which causes it to full up faster, thus' 
causing the pieces to roll up. 

After the pieces are put into the mill and this trouble is dis- 
covered there is- no other remedy than fc the fuller to stop the 



272 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 265 

machine frequently and overhaul the pieces, shaking them out well. 
In some aggravated cases it may be necessary to take them out of 
the mill, open them out well by shaking and running them in again 
the other end first. By adding a little fresh soap the fuller may be 
able to get the pieces out correctly. The best plan, however, is to 
closely examine the pieces before putting them in the mill and if in 
the opinion of the fuller or overseer there is the least sign that there 
will be trouble while fulling, they should be tacked with very small 
and close stitches. The trouble is not entirely done away with by 
this means, but it is reduced to a large extent. 

Cockles. Another trouble met with at the fulling mills is 
"cockles." It is often maintained that these troublesome things 
are caused in the fulling process, through what is termed uneven 
soaping, etc., but this is in no instance the case. Cockles cannot 
. be made in the fulling mill, but they can and will be developed there. 
They are made before the goods reach the finishing room or even 
before the goods are woven, but as they cannnot be seen until 
brought out by the fulling process it seems logical to lay the blame 
on the fulling. 

It is a very hard matter to say what really causes cockles, but with- 
out question the most frequent cause is the imeven oiling of the 
stock. But even if the stock has been carefully and evenly oiled 
as is now done in up-to-date mills, by means of mechanical oilers, 
they are apt to make their appearance now and then, especially 
if the yarn is allowed to lie for any great length of time before being 
made into goods. If this is the case the oil on the stock will become 
firmly set and is therefore apt to start unevenly in the fulling process. 

If the latter seems to be the cause it may be overcome by making 
the soap as strong in point of alkali as the fabric will permit. How- 
ever, alkali as is well known, is a powerful aid in the fulling process 
and is therefore likely to bring up the goods in width and length 
before the required amount of felt is produced. In such cases the 
pieces should be thoroughly scoured before putting them into the 
mill, when it will be possible to treat them at this point so that the 
required finish may be obtained. 

As stated before, it is often the case that cockles are attributed 
to uneven soaping in the fulling mill, but a little reflection and investi- 
gation must convince anyone that this is only imaginary, for there 



273 



266 WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 

is no such a thing as uneven soaping. There is such a thing as 
insufficient soaping which in some cases is mistaken for the other. 
No one who investigates will maintain for a minute that insufficient 
soaping will cause cockles. There is just as much trouble from 
cockles in places where the latest improved machines for soaping 
the goods are used as where these machines are unknown. 

When goods are soaped by hand in the mill, whatever amount 
of soap is given them — whether too much or too little — will be dis- 
tributed evenly over the goods and no one will be able after five or 
ten minutes running, with the most critical examination, to show a 
place or places where the goods are either too wet or too dry. It 
simply cannot be done even if it is carefully attempted. 

But if a piece contains cockles it is useless to argue on the soap 
question for the piece has to be fixed up somehow. This can be done, 
except in a few aggravated cases, by thoroughly washing the piece 
and then extracting just enough so that the goods will not drip. 
This is followed by drying with just enough stretch both ways to 
thoroughly smooth out all cockles. After this treatment it usially 
is necessary to again return the goods to the fulling mill for in order 
to stretch out the cockles the cloth is likely to become too wide. 

If the pieces have been thoroughly cleansed there is little likeli- 
hood of more trouble. Care must be taken to have them stretched 
sufficiently to have a perfectly smooth fabric when dry before they 
are again sent to the fulling mill, and it may be required to wet 
them out a second time and again dry them with more stretch before 
they will be smooth enough. 

It is not very often that such troubles show themselves and for 
that reason there are many finishers who never have had any experi- 
ence in this line, but when cockles do make their appearance a rigid 
investigation should at once' be instituted and the proper remedy 
applied before the whole department becomes clogged up. 

Mixed Filling. The- mixing of filling in the weave room often 
causes very bad work especially on fabrics which need much fulling, 
for the fillings being often of different stock with either more or less 
twist, the goods cannot help but full unevenly or at least shrink 
unevenly. In most cases this is readily detected for the difference 
will be noticed on the pick straight across the goods. This trouble 
simply cannot be remedied and it is useless wasting time trying to do so. 



274 



WOOLEN AND WORSTED FINISHING 267 

It sometimes happens that the fuller is unable to shrink the 
goods sent to him sufficiently in length, because they run up too 
rapidly in width. In such cases the only remedy to employ is to give 
the goods as little pressure under the roll as possible by loosening 
the springs attached to the top rolls. When this has been done the 
fuller has exhausted all means at his command to remedy the evil 
and the pieces will have to go as they are. A little care on the design- 
er's part might have prevented such a state of affairs but after the goods 
are woven it is too late to apply a remedy. 

All these are troubles which may be met with now and then, 
and it is well to have some idea of how to take hold and correct 
things. One thing is certain, however, that the man who will use his 
brains and reason properly from the effect to the probable cause, will 
in all cases make a better and more successful overseer than the 
man who resorts to guesswork or who hunts around trying to find 
some one to tell him what the trouble is. The troubles to be met 
with on the shear and press in the subsequent processes are more of a 
mechanical nature and are thoroughly explained elsewhere. 



275 



THE EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY 
ON YARN. 



The question of humidity is a very important one and is often 
not given the proper consideration. It is well known that cards, 
drawing frames, fly frames, spinning frames and looms, especially 
the latter, run to the best advantage, in regard to the percentage of 
breakages, in a warm atmosphere which has a considerable quantity 
of Water held in suspension in the form of vapor; in other words, a 
hot, moist air. 

The actual amount of moisture in the air is indicated by the 
weight in grains of the vapor in a cubic foot of air. The degree of 
humidity is expressed as a percentage of the maximum a-mount of 
vapor the air will hold at that temperature, and is called relative 
humidity. Any increase in the temperature of the air increases its 
capacity to hold moisture and, although the actual amount of moisture 
in the air may be the same, the relative humidity would be less. 
Air at a temperature of 60° F., with an actual humidity of 3.19, would 
have a relative humidity of 53. Now take air at a temperature of 
72° F., with an actual humidity of 3.19, and the relative humidity 
would be only 35. That is, the air at the two different temperatures 
contains the same amount of moisture, 3.19 grains per cubic foot, 
but the relative humidity is 18 degrees less with the higher temperature. 

It is well known that spinning frames run better when the air is 
damp and hot. but are there any other advantages in having these 
conditions, and, if so, what are they? 

It was with this object in view that the fo lowing experiments 
were made; the results were a little surprising. After getting along 
in the work and finding that the humidity did have a great effect 
on the yarn, an attempt was made to determine just where the best 
results were obtainable. 

The cotton selected for these tests was Middling Uplands of 
one inch staple, and Peelers of one and one-quarter inch staple; 



277 



2 THE EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY ON YARN 

the longer stapled cotton being used to spin the higher numbers. 
The tests covered a long period of time, extending through the winter 
and into the summer of three years, giving results obtained under 
all atmospheric conditions, varying from hot, dry, windy weather 
to cold and damp days, when there was no wind. This was to 
determine whether the outside atmospheric conditions would have 
any effect on the yarn, provided the conditions on the inside were 
the same. So far as could be noticed this made no difference in the 
results, as the same lot run when the air on the oustide was hot and 
dry gave practically the same result as when run while the outside 
air was damp and cold, the conditions on the inside being the same 
in both cases. 

In most of the tests the hum.idity was obtained through artificial 
means, by using humidifiers, though a great many of the lower humidi- 
ties were natural. The temperature of the room during these tests 
varied from 65 to 85 degrees, no attempt being made to keep the 
temperature in the different tests the same. So far as could be 
seen, this change in temperature did not have any effect on the yarn, 
as two tests on yarn of the same size, run at the same humidity but 
at temperatures of 68 and 83 degrees, gave only a variation of 1^ 
pounds in the average breaking strength and no difference in the 
appearance or running. 

In preparing the roving, care was taken to have it all made under 
approximately the same degree of humidity and the machinery was 
in as good working condition and adjustment as it was possible to get. 
The variation in the humidity was made only while the yarn was being 
spun. Twenty bobbins were taken as a basis for getting the averages 
and this number was not any too large. These twenty bobbins were 
selected from eighty bobbins on the frame without any regard to their 
positions, so as to get as good an average as possible. 

The humidity was carefully watched and recorded, readings 
being taken every ten minutes during the running of the test, the 
respective humidities given being the average of the readings for 
that test. These readings never varied far from the averages given. 
Different frames were run with the different sizes of yarn, giving 
different speeds and sizes of rings as the yarns increased in counts. 
Each test was run 1^ hours. 

The following tables give the results: 



278 



THE EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY ON YARN 



TABLE GIVING THE HUMIDITIES AND BREAKING STRENGTH 

FOR 20s YARN 

Average Humidity Average Breaking Strength 

Test No. 1, 40 • 82.4 lbs. 

Test No. 2, 45 ' 85.5 lbs. 

Test No. 3, 50 89.6 lbs. 

Test No. 4, 55 - 92.5 lbs. 

Test No. 5, 63 95.6 lbs. 

Test No. 6, 70. 98.7 lbs. 

Test No. 7, 81 101.5 lbs. 
Difference in humidity, 41 
Difference in breaking strength of yarn, 19.1 lbs. 

TABLE FOR 25s YARN 



Average Humidity 


Average Breaking Strength 


Test No. 1, 40 


65 lbs. 


Test No: 2, 45 


64.4 lbs. 


Test No. 3, 49 


63.7 lbs. 


Test No. 4, 55 


66 lbs. 


Test No. 5, 61 


69.6 lbs. 


Test No. 6, 70 


70.1 lbs. 


Test No. 7, 75 


73 lbs. 


Test No. 8, 84 


75.2 lbs. 


Difference in humidity, 44 




Difference in breaking strength of 


yarn, 11.4 lbs. 


TABLE 


FOR 30s YARN 


Average Humidity 


Average Breaking Strength 


Test No. 1, 46 


44.4 lbs. 


Test No. 2, 47 


43 lbs. 


Test No. 3, 57 


48.1 lbs. 


Test No. 4, 60 


53.8 lbs. 


Test No. 5, 63 • 


54.6 lbs. 


Test No. 6, 66 


53.8 lbs. 


- Test No. 7, 70 


54.5 lbs. 


Test No. 8, 75 


55.6 lbs. 


Test No. 9, 80 


57.3 lbs. 


Test No 10, 85.3 


59.3 lbs. 


Test No. 11, 95 


63.6 lbs. 



Difference in humidity, 49 

Difference in breaking strength, 19.2 lbs. 



TABLE FOR 35s YARN 



Average Humi 


idity 


Test No. 1, 


39 


Test No. 2, 


44 


Test No. 3, 


50 


Test No. 4, 


56 


Test No. 5, 


60 


Test No. 6, 


66 


Test No. 7, 


68 


Test No. 8, 


73 


Test No. 9, 


78 


Test No. 10, 


84 


Test No. 11, 


86 



Average Breaking Strength 

41.3 lbs. 

40.1 lbs. 

42.6 lbs. 
44.5 lbs. 
47 lbs. 

50.5 lbs. 

49.7 lbs. 
53 lbs. 

54.6 lbs. 

55.7 lbs. 

56.2 lbs. 



Difference in humidity, 47 

Difference in the breaking strength of yarn, 14.9 lbs. 



279 



THE EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY ON YARN 



These experiments included 40s, 45s, 50s, 55s and 60s carded 
yarns, but it is sufficient to say that the general results were the same, 
without giving all the tables. The draft on the spinning frames 
in all the tests was 10, so as to have no difference in the breaking 
strengths due to different drafts. 

In almost every case the higher the humidity the higher the 
breaking strength in all tests with all the sizes spun. As was expected 
there were some exceptions to this, but the tables show that this holds 
good in most cases, and in every test there was a difference in the 
breaking strengths between the lower and higher humidities in favor 
of the latter. The difference in the weights of the yarn spun under 
the high and low humidities was not enough to be taken into consid- 
eration. 

It was noticed also that the ends stayed up best when the humidity 
was between 65 and 75, and above and below that the percentage 
of broken ends was greater. There were one or two exceptions to 
this rule. 

A comparison was also made as to the appearance of the yarns 
spun under the different humidities and in practically every case those 

spun with the higher humidity showed 
up best. By this is meant that the 
yarn under the microscope looked a great 
deal more compact, as will be seen by 
the cut Fig. 1. 

The yarn on the left was spun with 
the humidity at 80, while that on the 
right was spun with the humidity at 45, 
both being of the same counts. The 
yarn spun at 45 humidity appears about 
twice as large as the one spun at 80, but 
there is no difference in the counts of the 
two yarns. 

After the humidity was raised to 65 
and 75 it was almost impossible, in many 
cases, to distinguish them by any such 
difference. That is, take the yarns of 
the same size, spun with 70 and 85 humidities and there was no 
difference in their appearance under the microscope. There 




Fig. 1. 
Showing difference in appearance 
of yarns spun at humidity of 
80 and 45. 



280 



THE EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY ON YARN 5 



were probably not less than one hundred mountings of these 
samples made to test this difference, and over two dozen photo- 
micrographs taken from these mountings. It is necessary to give 
but one of these photomicrographs as the others would look very 
much the same and simply amount to a repetition, except when the 
humidity was 70 and over, when they would have nearly, and often, 
the same appearance. 

Care was taken in making these mountings not to get results 
that were incorrect. In some cases, with the lower numbers, the 
difference in the appearance in the yarn was so marked as to be easily 
seen by the naked eye. It was also noticed that there was less fly 
on the frames when running with the higher humidities, showing 
conclusively that there was not the tendency for the fibers to separate 
from each other to such an extent as when the humidity was low, 
hence tending towards the making of a smoother yarn. 

The conclusions that are to be drawn from the experiments are: 

First. As a rule the higher the humidity the higher the breaking 
strength of the yarn. 

Second. That the percentage of broken ends was less with the 
humidity at about 65 to 75. 

Third. The fibers in the yarns lay closer together as the humidity 
was increased, producing a more compact and less "fuzzy" yarn, 
also a yarn that looked smaller. After the humidity was raised to 
about 70 there was scarcely any difference in the appearance in the 
yarns. 

Fourth. The higher the humidity the less fly collected on the 
frames. 

From these four conclusions it would appear that, all things 
being taken into consideration, a humidity between 65 and 75 would 
give the best results in the spinning room. Above this a little stronger 
yarn might be obtained but its appearance would not be any better 
and the chances are that broken ends would increase in number. 



281 



INDEX 



INDEX 



The 'page numbers of this volume ivill be found at the bottom of the 
pages; the numbers at the top refer only to the section. 





Page 




Page 


A 




Chinchilla machine 


204 


Application of soap 


42 


Chinchillas 


201 






drying 


204 


B 




gigging 


203 


Beavers 


200 


• scouring and wasliing 


202 


fulling 


200 


shearing 


203 


gigging 


200 


Cocl-des 


273 


Blanlvets, finisliing of 


222 


Cocoanut oil soaps 


39 


Bleaching woolen by sulphur 


243 


Construction of covert cloths 


258 


bluing 


245 


Covert clot lis 


258 


drying 


246 


burling and mending 


258 


extracting 


244 


construction of 


258 


operation of 


244 


finishing of 


.257 


stock 


243 


fulling 


259 


theory of 


244 


napping 


263 


washing 


243 


slirinkage of 


260 


Burling and mending covert cloths 


25 S 


soap used in fulling 


262 


Biir dyeing 


54 


washing 


263 


C 




Crabbing, theory of 


64 




Crabbing machine 


65 


Calculations of shrinkage 


29 


Crocking 


59 


Carbonization 


103 


Cutting waste material into flocks 


251 


neutralizing 


104 






Cassimeres, saxony finish 


186 


D 




fulling 


186 






gigging 


188 


Dewing machines 


151 


rolling and stretching 


186 


operation of 


153 


shearing 


188 


Doeskins 


211 


washing 


186 


fulling 


212 


Cassimeres, velour finish 


189 


gigging 


213 


drying 


190 


steaming 


214 


gigging 


189 


Double clotlis and reversibles 


214 


shearing 


190 


burling and mending 


215 


Cheviots 


192 


fulling 


215 


fulling and wasliing 


193 


gigging 


216 


pressing 


193 


Double-acting brusliing machine 


ll.S 


shearing 


193 


Double-acting napper 


90 


Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages. 









285 



11 



INDEX 



Dress goods 

crabbing 

drying 

pressing 

singeing 

sorting 

washing 
Dry flnisliing 

brusliing the goods 

dewing 

dry-beating 

drying 

pressing 

shearing 

steam brushing 
Drying 

artificial process of 

natural process of 
Drying machine, construction of 

P 

Fancy worsteds 

dampening 
Fancy woven goods 
Filter 

Finished fabric, correct weight of 
Finishing, facts worth remembering 
Finishing covert cloths 
Finishing low-grade goods 
Finishing room troubles 

cockles 

doubling 

fulling 

mixed filling 
Finishing standard fabrics 
Flock cutter 
Flock renovator 
Flocks 

Fuller's earth 
Fulling 

choking 

crimpiug-box 

fuller's record 

heat employed in 

regulation of traps 

roping 

seams 

shrinkage 
Note. — For page numbers see foot of 'j 



Page 
22S 
230 
234, 237 
238 
229 
233 
231 
111 
118 
150 
117 
111 
155 
121 
150 
111 
113 
111 
114 



225 

225 

229 

155 

35 

247 

257 

217 

270 

273 

272 

271 

274 

185 

252 

251 

33 

59 

17 

45 

20 

26 

24 

19 

44 

46 



Fulling 

soaping the goods 

stop-motion 

theory of 
Fulling covert cloths 
Fxilliug mill, construction of 



Gas singeing 
Gig 

double cylinder rotary 

rotary 

steam 

up-and-down 
Gigging and napping 

cropping 

double cylinder rotary gig 

dry gigging 

fiats 

rotary gig 

teasels for 

teasel mountmg 

up-and-down gig 

wet gigging 
Goods 

final inspection of 

measuring 

value of inspection 

^vrapping 

H 

Humidity, effects of on yarn 
H ydro-extr actor 

K 

Kerseys 

burling and mending 

cropping 

fulling 

gigging 

pressing 

steaming 

washing 

water finish 



List motion 
Lustering 

boiling process 



22 
45 
17 
259 
18 



61 

80 
77 
101 
72 
70 
89 
80 
94 
70 
77 
70 
71 
72 
94 

176 

177 
177 
182 

277 
69 



193 
194 
197 
195 
196 
199 
198 
195 
199 



130 

96 

103 



286 



INDEX 



III 



Page 



Lustering 

operation of steaminj 
steam finishmg 
steam gig 



M 



Machines 

chincliilla 

crabbing 

dewing 

gas singeing 

napping 

padding 

singeing 

soaping 

wasliing 

wet-finishing 

whipping 
Meltons 
Miller rotary press 



N 



Napping 

beaver 

doeskin 

goods for face finish 
Napping and gigging 
Napping machine 

construction of 

operation of 
New century rotary press 

O 

Outing flamiel 
fulling 
pressing 
scouring 
steaming 

P 

Padding machine 
Palm oil soaps 
Plate singeing 
Pneumatic cloth extractor 
Poplins 

crabbing 

shearing 
Potash soaps 

Note. — For pa(]e numbers see foot of pages. 





Pressing 


98 


paper 


96 


treatment of goods in 


101 


Pressing surfaces 




Process of carbonization 




R 


204 


Recipe for soap 


65 


Red-oil soap 


151 


cost of 


61 


Revolver knives 


85 


Rotary press 


236 


care of 


61 


construction of 


24 


operation of 


48 


rusting or scouring 


232 


steaming attacluuents 


204 


various types of 


200 


Rotary shears 


161 


Rubber rest shear 




adjustment of blades 




care of rubber tube 




cutting mechanism 


269 


grinding 


267 


tension of 


265 
70 
85 

85 


S 

Satinets 


fulling 


86 


gigging 


162 


soap for 
Serges 




crabbing and scouring 


208 


drying 


209 


shearing and pressing 


211 


singeing 


208 


SeAving machines 


210 


Shear grinder 




Shearing 




back brush 


236 


blades for 


40 


brushes, setting of 


63 


defective work in 


116 


flock pans for 


239 


handling of goods for 


240 


list-sa^'ing rest 


241 


oil streaks in cloth 


36 


skipping 



Page 

155 
156 
170 
160 
103 



38 
43 
44 
138 
157 
170 
157 
158 
174 
175 
161 
121 
144 
146 
148 
144 
149 
147 



220 
220 
222 
221 
225 
226 
227 
228 
226 
259 
138 
121 
143 
126 
143 
141 
124 
121 
130 
142 
139 



287 



IV 



INDEX 





Page 




Page 


Shearing 




U 




tension on goods in 


12S 


Union cassimeres 


191 


Shears 




fulling 


191 


adjustment of 


132, 139 


gigging 


192 


care of 


140 


washing 


192 


grinding and fixing 


133 


V 




oiling blades of 


141 




rotary 


121 


Voelker rotary press 


168 


spreading of blade 


141 


W 




tension device on 


129 


Washing 


47 


Slirinkage of covert cloth, calculation of 260 










covert cloths 


263 


Singeing 




handling of goods 


47 


gas 


61 
63 


scouring liquor 


53 


plate 


worsted goods 


53 


Singeing machine 


61 


Washing machine 


48 


Singeing process 


60 


construction of 


48 


Soap 




operation of 


50 


application of 


42 


Wet finishing 


11 


recipe for 


38 


btirling 


12 


Soap tests 


39 


carbonization 


103 


Soaping machine 


24 


crabbing 


64 


Soaps used in woolen mills 


36 


extracting 


67 


Soda soaps 


36 


fuUing 


17 


Speck dye 


54 


gigging and napping 


70 


application of 


57 


inspection of goods 


11 


ingredients of 


55 


lustering 


99 


recipe for 


56 


mending 


14 


Speck dyeing low-grade goods 


58 


packing 


15 


Steam brusliing 


150 


percliing 


14 


Strength of soap for fulling 


40 


singeing 


00 


Stretcliing and rolling 


67 


stretching 


67 






washing 


47 


T 




Wet-flnishing machine 


232 






Wliipping machine 


204 


Tables 












Woolen napper 


92 


air capacity, absorption of 


113 


Woolen and worsted finishing 


11-257. 


breaking strength of yarn 


279 










Worsted cheviots 


241 


slirinkage 


106-109 


Worsteds 




yarn, hmnidities for 


279 








polishing 


223 


Thibets 


217 










shearing 


224 


fulling 


218 






soap for 


219 


Y 




Twilled goods 


229 


Yarn, effects of humidity on 


277 



Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages. 



288 



